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Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
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http://archive.org/details/howtoattractholdOOesen 


How  To  Attract  And 
Hold  An  Audience 


A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  THE 
NATURE,  PREPARATION,  AND  DE- 
LIVERY OF  PUBLIC  ADDRESSES 

With  a  Course  of  Exercise  Lessons 
In  Public  Speaking. 

BY 

J.  BERG  ESENWEIN,  A.M.,  Lit.D. 

Professor  of  Public  Speaking  in  the 
International  Y.  M.  C.  A.  College 


Revised  and  Enlarged  Edition. 


NOBLE  AND  NOBLE,  Publishers 
76  Fifth  Avenue  New  York 


Copyright,  1902, 
By  J.  BERG  ESENWEIN. 

Copyright,  1928, 
By  J.  BERG  ESENWEIN. 


Printed  in  U.  S.  A. 


O- 


4 


TO  MY  STUDENTS 


id 

co  who  more  than  all  others  have  been 

CD 

MY  INSTRUCTORS 
THIS  VOLUME  IS  AFFECTIONATELY  INSCRIBED 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


PAGK 


Foreword   xiii 

PART  I— THE  THEORY  OF  SPOKEN  DISCOURSE 

CHAPTER  I  — The  Nature  of  Public  Steech 

1.  Thought   3 

2.  Emotion    ..........  4 

3.  Will   4 

CHAPTER  II  — The  Forms  of  Discourse 

1.  Description   6 

(a)  Viewpoint   7 

(b)  Outline   7 

(c)  Pruning   7 

(d)  Characterization   7 

(e)  Order   7 

(/)  Summary   7 

z.  Narration        .........  8 

(a)  Preview  .........  8 

(b)  Subordination  of  Details   8 

(c)  Application   8 

(d)  Movement   8 

3.  Exposition        .........  9 

(a)  Definition   9 

(b)  Classification   9 

(c)  Division   9 

{d)  Generalization   9 

v 


Vi  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

4.  Argumentation   10 

BUILDING  UP  AN  ARGUMENT 

(a)  Getting  at  Facts   n 

(1)  By  Intuition   12 

(2)  By  Observation   12 

(3)  By  Testimony   12 

(4)  By  Authority   12 

(b)  Drawing  Conclusions  from  Facts  —  Induction         .  12 

(1)  Cause  to  Effect   12 

(2)  Effect  to  Cause      ......  13 

(3)  Circumstantial  Evidence        ....  13 

(4)  From  Experience    .       .       .       .       .  15 

(5)  From  Analogy   15 

(c)  Inferring  Facts  from  General  Principles —Deduc- 

tion   16 

(1)  The  Syllogism   16 

(2)  The  Syllogism  contracted      .       .       .  17 

(3)  The  Syllogism  enlarged  .       .       .       .  .18 

(4)  The  Syllogism  in  Series  .       .       .       .  19 

(d)  Joint  Inductive-Deductive  Method  .       .       .  .21 

BREAKING  DOWN  AN  ARGUMENT 

(a)  Simple  Rebuttal   22 

(d)  Affirmative  Reasoning   22 

(c)  Elimination  of  Untenable  Grounds  ....  22 

(1)  Reducing  to  an  Absurdity      ....  22 

(2)  Dilemma   23 

(3)  Elimination    .......  24 

(d)  Detection  of  Fallacies   25 

(1)  False  Conclusion   25 

(2)  Ambiguity   26 

(3)  Begging  the  Question   27 

(4)  Reasoning  in  a  Circle   27 

(5)  Imperfect  Enumeration   28 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS  vii 

PAGE 

5.  Persuasion   28 

(a)  Address  to  the  Intellect   29 

(6)  Appeal  to  the  Emotions   29 

(J)  Appeal  to  the  Will   32 

6.  Summary  ..........  33 

CHAPTER  III  — The  Kinds  of  Public  Discourse 

1.  Improjnptu  Speeches  ........  34 

2.  Extemporaneous  Addresses       ......  35 

3.  Declamations    .       .       .       .       .       .       .  *           •  35 

4.  Orations   36 

CHAPTER  IV  — The  Kinds  of  Oratory 

1.  Forensic   40 

2.  Deliberative      .       .       .   40 

3.  Sacred      ..........  41 

4.  Demonstrative  .........  41 

(a)  Occasional      .       .       .       .       .       .       .  .42 

(1)  Anniversary    .......  42 

(2)  Dedicatory   42 

(3)  Commemorative      ......  42 

(b)  Eulogy  and  Invective   42 

(c)  Popular   43 

CHAPTER  V  — Eloquence   44 

PART  II  — PREPARATION  OF  THE  DISCOURSE 

CHAPTER  VI  —  Originality 

1 .  The  Test  of  Originality     .       .       .       .       .       .  5 1 

2.  The  Sources  of  Originality        .       .       .       .       .  -53 

(a)  Observation  of  Nature   53 

(6)  Consecutive  Thinking   55 

(c)  Companionship  with  Great  Thoughts       ...  56 

(d)  Individuality   56 


viii 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  VII  — The  Subject 

PAGB 

1.  What  is  Due  the  Occasion        .       .       .       .       .  .58 

2.  What  is  Due  the  Subject   59 

3.  What  is  Due  the  Speaker   60 

CHAPTER  VIII  — The  Title 

1.  An  Attractive  Title   62 

2.  A  Truthful  Title   63 

3.  A  Descriptive  Title   63 

CHAPTER  IX  — The  Materials 

1 .  Relation  to  the  Subject   65 

2.  Subordination  to  Subject    .......  67 

3.  Organization  around  the  Subject       .....  68 

(a)  Reflection   68 

(b)  Observation   68 

(c)  Reading   .68 

4.  Management  of  Notes   69 

CHAPTER  X— The  Writing 

1 .  The  Working  Outline   72 

2.  The  First  Writing   74 

3.  The  Final  Revision   75 

CHAPTER  XI  — The  Grand  Divisions  of  the 
Discourse 

1.  The  Introduction   76 

2.  The  Statement   79 

3.  The  Discussion   81 

4.  The  Peroration  .   .81 

5.  The  Entire  Discourse   84 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS  ix 

,'    '      CHAPTER  XII  — How  to  Acquire  an  Oratorical 
Vocabulary 

I  HI  PAGE 

/  va\  i .  Study  of  Oratorical  Models   86 

// v  2.  The  Dictionary  Habit   86 

3.  Synonyms  and  Antonyms  .......  87 

4.  Conversations  on  Words   90 

5.  Translating  Languages     .       ,       .       .       .       .  .91 

S     6.  Study  of  Etymology   91 

/      7.  Broad  Usage   91 

CHAPTER  XIII  — Style  in  Public  Discourse 

1.  Personality   93 

2.  Freedom  ..........  97 

3.  Determining  Conditions   99 

CHAPTER  XIV  — Digest  of  Rhetorical  Rules 

1.  Diction     ..........  100 

(a)  Pure  Words   100 

(b)  Proper  Words   100 

(c)  Precise  Words   101 

2.  Sentences   101 

Kinds   101 

3.  Essential  Properties  of  Style   102 

(a)  Grammatical  Correctness   102 

(b)  Clearness        .       .       .       .       .       .       .  .102 

(c)  Unity   103 

4.  Special  Properties  of  Style   104 

{a)  Emphasis   104 

(fr)  Force   104 

(c)  Harmony   105 

<J(d)  Vitality   105 

(e)  Figures  of  Speech   105 

5.  Variety  of  Expression  —  How  secured      .       .  .106 

6.  The  Thought  Divisions      .       .       .       .       .       .  .107 

7.  The  Whole  Discourse   108 


X 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


PART  III  — PREPARATION  OF  THE  SPEAKER 
CHAPTER  XV  — Mental  Preparation 

PAGE 


1 .  Gripping  the  Discourse   112 

2.  Conserving  Energy   114 

CHAPTER  XVI  —  Preparation  for  Expression 
bv  Voice 

1.  Hygiene   118 

2.  Breathing   118 

3.  Elements  of  Expression   118 

(a)  Quality   118 

(0)  Force   118 

(f)  Pitch   119 

(d)  Time   120 

(e)  Pause   121 

(/)  Emphasis        .       .       .       .       .       .       .  .121 

(g)  Control   .121 

4    Pronunciation   .       .       .       .       .       .       .       .  .122 

(a)  Articulation   124 

(d)  Accentuation   126 

(c)  Enunciation   127 

CHAPTER  XVII  — Preparation  for  Expression 
by  Action 

1.  Carriage   131 

2.  The  Head  and  Fat c   132 

3.  Gesture   133 

CHAPTER  XVIII  — Preparation  by  Drill 

1.  General  Suggestions   139 

2.  The  Will  in  Rehearsal   140 

3.  Self-Criticism   141 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


xi 


PART  IV  — DELIVERY 

PAGfc 

CHAPTER    XIX  —  Helps   and    Hindrances    in  the 


Audience  149 

CHAPTER  XX  — Facing  the  Audience 

1.  Just  before  Speaking   154 

2.  The  First  Moments  of  Delivery   155 

3.  The  Course  of  Delivery   157 

4.  Ending  the  Discourse   160 

CHAPTER  XXI  — Do's  and  Don't's  for  Discourse     .  162 
APPENDICES 

Appendix  A   171 

Outlines  of  Orations. 

Appendix  B  186 

Model  Orations  for  Analysis  and  for  Declamation. 

Appendix  C  240 

One  Hundred  Subjects  for  Orations,  with  Brief  Hints  for 
Treatment. 

Appendix  D  259 

One  Hundred  Subjects  for  Orations. 

Appendix  B  263 


Questions  and  Assignments  for  Class  Use. 


INDEX 


275 


FOREWORD 


This  treatise  aims  to  be  suggestive,  not  exhaustive ; 
practical,  not  theoretical ;  popular,  not  technical.  With 
all  this,  it  is  believed  that  nothing  essential  to  the  public 
speaker  in  his  effort  to  attract  and  hold  an  audience 
has  been  omitted  or  slighted.  Fifteen  years  of  experi- 
ence have  persuaded  the  author  that,  since  compara- 
tively few  speakers  have  had  opportunity  to  take  a 
course  in  public  speaking,  such  hints  and  helps  as  are 
here  offered  may  find  a  welcome.  The  methods  of  the 
elocutionary  manual  have  been  discarded.  Common- 
sense  is  a  better  substitute.  The  expositions  and  expla- 
nations are  designed  to  be  plain  and  straight-forward, 
assisting  the  speaker  to  find  the  way  to  the  hearts  of  his 
audience. 

The  clearly  marked  divisions  of  the  volume  should 
add  materially  to  its  value  as  a  text-book.  The  horta- 
tory style  here  and  there  adopted  is  neither  unusual  nor 
unwarranted.  The  pupil  as  well  as  the  teacher  often 
needs  a  tonic.  While  its  class-room  use  has  been  kept 
in  mind,  it  is  hoped  that  instructors  will  see  the  value 

xiii 


xiv 


FOREWORD 


of  placing  in  the  hand  of  the  pupil  a  brief,  lucid  manual 
which  will  greatly  lighten  the  burden  of  personal  drill. 
The  instructor  will  augment  its  value  by  indicating  to 
the  pupil  such  passages  as  he  should  study  unassisted. 

It  is  believed  that  the  Appendices  will  add  greatly  to 
the  suggestive  and  pedagogical  value  of  the  treatise. 

The  Author. 

Foreword  to  the  Revised  Edition 

The  changes  made  in  this  handbook  for  this  edition 
are  mainly  of  two  sorts :  To  bring  it  up  to  present-day 
requirements,  and  to  make  more  effective  its  use  as  a  text 
for  colleges  and  schools.  To  this  latter  end  a  complete 
course  of  practical  lessons  has  been  included  in  Appendix 
E.  This  course  follows  closely  the  methods  devised  by 
the  author  for  use  in  his  own  classes  in  public  speaking 
in  the  International  Y.  M.  C.  A.  College,  Springfield, 
Massachusetts,  Northeastern  University,  (Springfield 
Branch),  and  in  special  classes  elsewhere.  The  peda- 
gogical approach  is  believed  to  be  as  sound  as  the  course 
has  proved  itself  to  be  practicable. 

The  Author. 

Springfield,  Massachusetts, 
May  1,  1928. 


PART  I 


THE  THEORY  OF  SPOKEN 
DISCOURSE 


Thought  once  awakened  does  not  again  slumber.  —  Carlyle, 
Heroes  and  Hero  Worship. 

If,  then,  a  comprehensive  definition  of  an  orator  were  to  be 
given,  I  would  say  that  the  speaker  who  justly  claims  this  respect- 
able name  is  he  who,  upon  all  subjects,  shall  be  able  to  deliver 
his  sentiments  with  accuracy,  clearness,  grace,  and  fluency,  accom- 
panied with  a  certain  dignity  of  action. 

******* 

By  an  orator  I  meant  one  who  treated  every  subject  which  he 
wished  to  discuss,  with  a  force  and  splendor  of  language  that 
commanded  admiration  ;  one  whose  faculties  comprehended  all  the 
treasures  of  knowledge  which  can  enrich  or  inspire  eloquence. 
Though  this  seems  impracticable  to  us,  .  .  .  yet  still  it  must  be 
allowed  to  be  within  the  compass  of  actual  attainment.  —  Cicero, 
De  Oratore. 


HOW  TO  ATTRACT  AND  HOLD 
AN  AUDIENCE 


PART  I 

THE  THEORY  OF  SPOKEN  DISCOURSE 
CHAPTER  I 

THE  NATURE  OF  PUBLIC  SPEECH 

Thoughts  that  breathe  and  words  that  burn. 

—  Gray,  Progress  of  Poesy. 

Men  speak  to  communicate  ideas.  All  speech  seeks 
to  convey  to  the  hearer  a  mental  picture  of  that  which 
is  in  the  mind  of  the  speaker  —  thought  is  alike  its 
foundation  and  its  completed  result.  Thus  it  is  evident 
that  public  speech,  whether  intended  to  arouse,  pacify, 
please,  amuse,  convince,  or  instruct,  is  always 

i.  A  TJioicght  Instrument 

As  such  it  must  always  be  viewed  in  the  light  of  the 
laws  of  thought.  It  is  of  primary  importance,  then, 
for  us  to  examine  the  thought  of  every  public  discourse, 
since  that  is  its  chief  characteristic.  A  full  discussion 
of  this  part  of  our  subject  would  involve  the  science 
3 


4 


THE  NATURE  OF  PUBLIC  SPEECH 


and  art  of  reasoning,  called  Logic ;  while  to  Rhetoric 
belongs  the  thorough  treatment  of  the  literary  forms 
in  which  discourse  is  cast.1 

A  second  element  of  public  speech  is 

2.  Emotion 

Thought  is  colored  by  emotion,  yet  we  must  not  con- 
fuse the  one  with  the  other.  For  example,  a  speaker 
purposes  to  denounce  a  public  malefactor.  The  material 
which  makes  up  the  charges,  and  the  facts  adduced  to 
support  them,  constitute  the  thought  of  the  address ; 
but  the  indignation,  the  passionate  invective  or  appeal, 
of  the  speaker,  communicated  by  him  to  his  audience, 
indicate  the  emotion.  How  serious,  then,  is  the  impor- 
tance of  harmonizing  your  feeling  with  your  thought 
when  speaking  before  an  audience,  and  this  as  much 
for  the  purpose  of  restraining  undue  excitement  as  in 
order  to  prevent  a  dull  and  monotonous  presentation 
of  the  thought. 

A  third,  though  less  apparent,  element  of  public 
speech  is 

3.  The  Will 

Various  other  names  have  been  given  to  this  element, 
but  the  last  analysis  shows  all  these  to  mean  the  same 
thing.  The  will  it  is  that  gives  personality  and  con- 
vincing power  to  the  address.  Without  it  "  thoughts  " 
will  not  "breathe,"  and  "words"  will  not  "burn." 

1  See  pp.  100-108. 


THE  NATURE  OF  PUBLIC  SPEECH 


5 


Unless  the  will  cooperate  with  both  thought  and  feel- 
ing, the  audience  will  master  the  speaker  instead  of 
the  speaker  his  audience.  The  former  is  failure;  the 
latter,  success. 

In  a  large  sense,  speech  js^the  -man.  Given  a  mes- 
sage, personality  makes  the  speaker,1  —  not  one,  not 
two,  but  all  of  these  phases  of  his  three-fold  individuality- 
must  come  into  play  before  the  speaker  can  transform 
spectators  into  auditors. 

The  mastery  of  self  in  thought,  in  feeling,  and  in  will 
is  essential  to  mastering  an  audience  ;  and  your  business 
before  an  audience,  after  having  first  made  your  subject- 
matter  a  vital  part  of  yourself,  is  to  throw  all  the  weight 
of  your  thought,  feeling,  and  will  upon  your  hearers, 
so  as  to  reproduce  in  them  your  own  state  of  mind.  And 
this  is  true  whether  your  theme  be  comic  or  tragic,  per- 
suasive or  argumentative,  descriptive  or  didactic.  Never 
for  one  moment  accept  any  other  standard  than  that 
public  speech  rises  in  public  respect  and  is  truly  success- 
ful in  direct  proportion  as  it  reproduces  in  his  hearers 
the  spirit  of  the  speaker.  Think  this  deeply  into  your 
consciousness. 

1  See  p.  93„ 


CHAPTER  II 


THE  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 

She  hath  prosperous  art 
When  she  will  play  with  reason  and  discourse, 
And  well  she  can  persuade. 

—  Shakespeare,  Measure  for  Measure,  Act  I.  Scene  2. 

Rhetoricians  recognize  five  forms  of  discourse,1 
whether  spoken  or  written :  Description,2  Narration, 
Exposition,  Argumentation,3  and  Persuasion.  The  last 
two  are  sometimes  regarded  as  one. 

While  these  titles  are  really  definitive,  a  somewhat 
closer  examination  into  their  nature  and  scope  is  neces- 
sary.4 

I .  Description 

"  Description  is  the  portrayal  of  concrete  objects, 
material  or  spiritual,  by  means  of  language,"  says 
Genung.  Each  word  of  this  admirably  explicit  defini- 
tion is  significant,  and  separately  is  worthy  of  the 
student's  notice. 

1  For  full  discussion  see  Working  Principles  of  Rhetoric,  Genung,  pp. 
475-662. 

2  See  Highways  of  Literature,  Pryde,  pp.  152,  153. 
8  See  Principles  of  Argumentation,  Baker. 

*  Some  practical  hints  on  the  rhetorical  use  of  the  Forms  of  Discourse 
are  offered  in  Chapter  XIV. 

6 


THE  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 


7 


In  order  to  accurate,  vivid,  and  attractive  description, 
six  things  are  necessary. 

(a)  Establish  a  point  of  vieiv  and  maintain  it.  —  Do 
this  so  consistently  that  your  hearers  must  understand 
and  adopt  your  attitude  toward  the  object  or  idea  de- 
scribed. This  may  be  compared  to  establishing  a  scale 
of  inches  to  miles  in  map  drawing. 

(b)  Briefly  and  comprehensively  outline  the  whole  scene 
before  describing  it  in  detail.  —  A  vivid  initial  survey 
will  give  tone  and  spirit  to  the  entire  portrayal. 

(c)  Relentlessly  cut  out  all  ideas  and  words  not  neces- 
sary to  prod?ice  the  effect  you  desire.  —  Details  in  a  mental 
picture  either  help  or  hinder.  Be  sure  they  do  not 
hinder,  for  they  cannot  be  passively  present  in  any 
discourse. 

(d)  Give  vivid  prominence  to  important  characteristics. 
—  That  is,  to  those  things  which  give  an  object  its  indi- 
viduality, and  so  distinguish  it  from  all  different  objects. 
Learn  a  lesson  from  the  poster-artist. 

(e)  Follow  a  natural,  logical,  and  climactic  order  hi 
description.  —  One  feature  introduced  out  of  its  order 
will  distort  the  picture  you  are  painting  for  your  audi- 
ence.   Hold  things  in  proportion. 

(f )  Make  a  powerful  and  effective  summary  in  present- 
ing the  general  view  at  the  close  of  the  portrayal.  —  First 
and  final  impressions  remain  the  longest.  The  mind 
may  be  trained  to  take  in  the  characteristic  points  of  a 
subject,  so  as  to  view  in  a  single  scene,  action,  experi- 
ence, or  character,  a  unified  impression  of  the  whole. 


8 


THE  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 


It  is  necessary  to  gain  this  "  bird's-eye  view "  before 
you  can  select  fitting  words  wherewith  to  portray  your 
subject  effectively.  In  other  words,  a  clear  and  sharply 
outlined  picture  of  what  you  wish  to  describe  must  be 
in  your  mind's  eye  before  you  can  transfer  it  to  your 
auditors. 

This  clear,  unified  mental  picture  often  suggests  a 
striking  epithet  or  a  figure  of  speech,  and  hence  effec- 
tive speakers  often  employ  epithets  and  figures  in  de- 
scription. 

2.  Narration 

The  recounting  of  the  particulars  of  an  event,  or  of  a 
series  of  events,  in  the  order  of  occurrence,  is  called 
narration.  Sometimes  this  order  is  changed  with  the 
purpose  of  making  a  more  powerful  impression  upon 
the  hearer.  Narration  is  closely  related  to  description, 
each  frequently  being  made  auxiliary  to  the  other. 

(a)  Be  sure  you  see  the  end  from  the  beginning.  —  This 
is  fundamental  to  all  narration. 

(b)  Subordinate  the  minor  to  the  major  points  of  inter- 
est. 

(c)  Keep  the  application  of  the  narration  in  mind.  — 
Particularly  must  this  be  observed  if  the  narrative  is 
used  as  an  illustration,  else  the  story  may  defeat  its  own 
end  by  absorbing  all  the  interest,  leaving  the  motive  for 
its  introduction  uncertain. 

(d)  Narration  must  preserve  its  forward  movement  at 
all  hazards.  —  Digressions  are  fatal.    Narration  deals 


THE  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 


9 


with  events,  and  when  these  lag,  failing  to  follow  each 
other  with  variety,  interest,  and  surprise,  or  when  the 
"point"  is  revealed  too  soon,  a  dispiriting  anti-climax 
results  and  the  hearer  loses  interest. 

3.  Exposition 

This  may  be  defined  as  the  clear  and  simple  setting 
forth  of  what  a  thing  really  is.  It  does  not  deal  with 
reasons  or  with  arguments,  but  confines  itself  to  inquir- 
ies as  to  what  things  mean,  as  to  how  they  differ  from 
other  things,  and  as  to  questions  of  fact. 

For  the  purposes  of  this  treatise  it  is  enough  to  note 
the  four  lines  along  which  exposition  may  proceed. 

(a)  By  definition,  exposition  attempts  so  to  outline 
a  subject  as  to  distinguish  it  from  all  objects  not  bear- 
ing the  same  name.  This  process  of  discrimination,  of 
showing  just  how  the  subject  of  definition  differs  from 
other  subjects  with  which  it  might  be  confused,  is  fun- 
damental to  effective  discourse. 

(b)  By  classification,  exposition  seeks  to  place  the 
subject  in  the  class,  order,  genus,  and  species  in  which 
it  belongs.   The  process  is  synthetic — building  to  a  peak. 

(c)  By  division,  which  is  classification  reversed,  exposi- 
tion so  divides  the  subject  as  to  bring  clearly  to  view  its 
parts,  severally  as  well  as  in  relation.  This  process  is 
analytic. 

(d)  By  generalization,  exposition  attempts  to  make  a 
broad,  general  statement  of  the  subject  so  as  to  present 
it  in  a  single  view. 


10 


THE  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 


When  illustration  by  example  is  used  according  to  the 
laws  of  narration,  it  becomes  an  efficient  aid  to  exposi- 
tion. It  should  be  remembered  that  illustration  is  not 
argument,  though  argument  often  appeals  to  examples 
to  support  its  contention. 

To  master  the  process  of  exposition  is  to  become  a 
clear  thinker.  "I  know,  when  you  do  not  ask  me,"1 
replied  a  gentleman  upon  being  requested  to  define  a 
highly  complex  idea.  Now  some  ideas  defy  explicit 
definition ;  but  no  mind  should  take  refuge  behind  such 
exceptions,  for  where  definition  fails,  other  forms  suc- 
ceed. Sometimes  we  feel  confident  that  we  have  per- 
fect mastery  of  an  idea,  but  when  the  time  comes  to 
express  it,  the  clearness  becomes  a  haze.  Exposition, 
then,  is  the  test  of  clear  understanding.  To  speak 
effectively  you  must  be  able  to  see  your  subject  clearly 
and  comprehensively,  and  to  make  your  audience  see  it 
as  you  do.    It  is  the  basis  of  all  sound  argumentation. 

4.  Argumentation 

This  we  define  as  the  process  of  producing  pure  con- 
viction. For  the  accomplishment  of  this  end  argumen- 
tation proceeds  according  to  the  laws  of  Logic  —  defined 
by  McCosh  as  "  the  science  of  the  laws  of  discursive 
thought  "  ;2  and  by  Whately  as  "the  science,  and  also 
the  art,  of  reasoning."3 

1  Working  Principles  of  Rhetoric,  Genung,  p.  56 1. 

2  Logic,  p.  I.  8  Logic,  p.  1. 


THE  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 


I  I 


The  very  name  "  logic  "  has  to  many  an  awful  sound 
—  they  covet  its  power,  but  are  frightened  by  its  sup- 
posed intricacies.  In  point  of  fact,  nothing  is  simpler 
than  common-sense  reasoning.  A  host  of  hair-splitting 
processes  and  learned  terms  are  doubtless  valuable  to 
the  specialist ;  but  for  the  orator's  purpose  —  and  let  it 
be  remembered  that  for  his  uses  alone  these  thoughts 
are  presented  —  an  acquaintance  with  a  few  simple 
forms  of  reasoning  is  all  that  is  necessary.  The  logic 
of  common  sense  "  is  modest,  plain,  and  unsophisticated. 
It  sees  with  everybody's  eyes,  and  hears  with  every- 
body's ears.  It  has  no  capricious  distinctions,  no  per- 
plexities, and  no  mysteries.  It  never  equivocates,  and 
never  trifles.  Its  language  is  always  intelligible.  It 
is  known  by  clearness  of  speech  and  singleness  of 
purpose."  1 

There  are  two  main  ways  of  handling  argumentation  : 
first,  building  up  an  argument;  second,  tearing  down 
an  argument. 

BUILDING  UP  AN  ARGUMENT 

(a)  Getting  at  facts.  —  This  process  of  investigation 
is  closely  allied  to  exposition,  upon  which,  as  we  have 
just  seen,  argumentation  depends  for  its  clearness  and 
its  accuracy. 

There  are  four  ways  of  getting  at  the  facts  necessary 
to  an  argument. 

1  Public  Speaking  and  Debate,  Holyoake>  p.  l£ 


12 


THE  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 


(1)  By  intuition.  —  For  example,  you  intuitively  know 
that  you  are  yourself,  and  not  somebody  else.  It  needs 
neither  observation,  testimony,  nor  argument  to  con- 
vince you  of  this ;  it  is  one  of  the  earliest  facts  of  your 
consciousness. 

(2)  By  personal  observation  or  investigation. 

(3)  By  the  testimony  of  trustworthy  witnesses. 

(4)  By  appeal  to  competent  authorities. 

(b)  Drawing  conclusions  from  facts.  — This  process  is 
called  induction.  By  it  facts  are  not  only  gathered,  but 
also  put  together  in  such  a  manner  as  to  produce  in  the 
mind  a  belief  concerning  those  facts.  The  methods  of 
induction  employed  by  Dr.  A.  Conan  Doyle's  inimitable 
Sherlock  Holmes  are  capital  examples  of  this  style 
of  reasoning.  Holmes  always  secured  as  many  well- 
attested  facts  as  he  could,  then  inferred  other  probable 
facts,  and  from  them  all  constructed  a  working  theory. 
To  this  theory  (the  logicians  would  call  it  an  hypothe- 
sis) he  clung  until  the  discovery  of  additional  data 
proved  or  disproved  the  correctness  of  his  supposition. 
This  idea  of  forming  an  hypothesis,  a  shrewd  guess,  a 
working  theory,  is  at  the  basis  of  all  induction. 

Bear  in  mind  that  an  earnest  inquirer  is  always  ask- 
ing the  meaning  of  things  about  him.  How  may  he 
draw  conclusions,  or  infer  explanations,  from  the  facts 
he  possesses  ?    There  are  several  simple  ways. 

(1)  He  may  argue  from  a  known  cause  to  its  probable 
effect. 

This  method  the  logicians  call  arguing  a  priori.  For 


THE  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 


13 


instance,  when  a  prosecuting  attorney  clearly  proves 
that  there  existed  in  the  mind  of  a  man  charged  with 
murder,  a  motive  sufficiently  strong  to  induce  him  to 
commit  the  crime,  a  strong  inference  against  the  ac- 
cused has  been  established. 

(2)  He  may  argue  from  a  known  effect  back  to  its 
probable  cause. 

This  process  the  logicians  term  arguing  a  posteriori. 
For  example,  an  orator  who  wishes  to  prove  that  the 
liquor  traffic  is  an  evil  may  simply  point  to  its  effects. 
The  argument  a  posteriori  judges  a  tree  by  its  fruits. 

Genung  has  thus  summarized  the  legal  tests  for  these 
two  forms  of  induction  :  — 

"  Concerning  any  argument  involving  cause  and  ef- 
fect, three  facts  must  be  established,  by  way  of  test, 
before  it  can  be  regarded  as  conclusive.  It  must  be 
shown :  — 

That  an  actual  cause  exists ; 

That  it  is  sufficient  to  produce  the  effect  contemplated  ; 
That  opposing  circumstances  or  probabilities  are  not 
sufficient  to  hinder  its  working."  1 

(3)  He  may  draw  a  conclusion  to  which  circumstances 
strongly  point. 

When  surroundings  strongly  indicate  a  fact,  and  yet 
there  is  no  positive  corroborative  testimony,  such  indica- 
tions are  called  circumstantial  evidence. 

It  is  plain  that  indications  cannot  compare  with  posi- 

1  Working  Principles  of  Rhetoric,  Genung,  p.  6lO. 


14 


THE  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 


tive  facts  as  weighty  evidence ;  but  when  the  signs  are 
many  and  pointed,  the  argument  becomes  powerful. 
As  an  instance,  the  circumstances  point  to  Sir  Philip 
Francis  as  the  probable  author  of  The  Letters  of  Junius, 
but  the  evidence  is  not  strong  enough  to  establish  his 
alleged  authorship  as  a  fact. 

The  prosecuting  attorney  uses  circumstances  to  argue 
a  conclusion  in  the  following  manner,  whether  he  puts 
it  in  such  definite  form  or  not:  — 

The  murderer  frequently  carries  blood  stains  on  his 
clothes ; 

The  accused  has  such  stains  upon  his  clothes ; 
Inference  :  The  accused  is  the  murderer. 

The  murderer  must  have  been  in  the  neighborhood 

at  the  time  of  the  murder ; 
The  accused  was  seen  in  the  neighborhood  both  before 

and  after  the  time  of  the  murder; 
Inference  :  The  accused  is  the  murderer. 

The  murderer  must  have  walked  through  red  clay  to 

reach  the  barn  where  the  victim  was  murdered ; 
The  accused  had  lumps  of  red  clay  upon  his  boots  ; 
Inference :  The  accused  is  the  murderer. 

Examples  might  be  multiplied  indefinitely.  It  is 
sufficient  to  observe  that  when  inferences  of  this  kind 
are  supported  by  others,  the  result  is  called  cumulative 
evidence,  and  may  produce  moral  certainty,  even  when 
no  direct  testimony  can  be  presented. 


THE  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 


15 


(4)  He  may  forecast  a  future  happening,  or  justify  a 
course  of  conduct,  from  past  experiences. 

As  an  example  take  the  statement  that  those  who 
have  taken  foolish  risks  have  generally  met  disaster. 
The  irresistible  inference  is  against  taking  foolish  risks. 
This  kind  of  induction  is  most  frequently  used  in  urging 
moral  considerations  and  in  exhorting  to  certain  courses 
of  conduct. 

One  of  its  forms  is  known  to  logicians  as  argument 
a  fortiori.  Thomas  Jefferson  used  it  thus  effectively  : 
"  Sometimes  it  is  said  that  man  cannot  be  trusted  with 
the  government  of  himself.  Can  he,  then,  be  trusted 
with  the  goverment  of  others  ?  " 

Other  excellent  examples  are  to  be  found  in  several 
of  Christ's  sermons. 

"  If  a  son  shall  ask  bread  of  any  of  you  that  is  a 
father,  will  he  give  him  a  stone  ?  Or  if  he  ask  a  fish, 
will  he  for  a  fish  give  him  a  serpent  ?  Or  if  he  shall 
ask  an  egg,  will  he  offer  him  a  scorpion  ?  If  ye  thenj 
being  evil,  know  how  to  give  good  gifts  unto  your 
children,  how  much  more  shall  your  heavenly  Father 
give  the  Holy  Spirit  to  them  that  ask  him  ?  "  1 

"If  then  God  so  clothe  the  grass  which  is  to-day  in 
the  field,  and  to-morrow  is  cast  into  the  oven  ;  how 
much  more  will  he  clothe  you,  O  ye  of  little  faith  ? "  2 

(5)  He  may  argue  from  analogy.  That  is,  he  may 
draw  a  parallel  between  two  facts  or  sets  of  facts, 
and  argue  that  because  there  are  admitted  points  of 

1  St.  Luke  xi.  1 1-13.  2  St.  Luke  xii.  28. 


l6  THE  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 

likeness,  other  similarities  probably  exist.  Analogy 
can  never  produce  certainty ;  but  at  best  only  probability. 
Even  that  probability  is  destroyed  when  things  not 
alike  are  assumed  to  be  similar.  A  fine  example  of  its 
most  discriminating  use  is  Professor  Henry  Drum- 
mond's  treatise,  Natural  Law  in  the  Spiritual  World. 
The  whole  course  of  argument  is  from  analogy. 

Modern  thinkers  agree  that  the  chief  value  of  analogy 
is  for  purposes  of  illustration. 

(c)  Inferring  facts  from  general  principles.  —  This 
process,  known  as  deduction,  is  the  exact  opposite  of 
inductive  argument.  Induction,  as  we  have  seen,  con- 
siders separate  facts,  unites  them,  and  draws  from  them 
a  conclusion  or  general  principle.  Deduction  begins 
with  a  general,  admitted  truth  and  infers  from  it  the 
facts  upon  which  the  truth,  the  principle,  depends. 

We  also  saw  that  a  working  theory  or  hypothesis  is 
the  basis  of  induction  ;  but  the  basis  of  all  deductive 
reasoning  is  (i)  the  syllogism.  It  is  more  simple  than 
might  be  inferred  from  the  statement  that  it  cannot  be 
satisfactorily  defined  in  few  words.  We  may,  however, 
discover  its  character  by  examining  its  structure. 

Syllogism 

Major  Premise  :  All  men  must  die. 
Minor  Premise  :  John  is  a  man. 
Conclusion  :  Therefore,  John  must  die. 

It  will  be  seen  at  once  that  the  major  premise  makes 
a  general  statement  which  it  declares  to  be  a  truth 


THE  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 


17 


covering  all  cases  —  "All  men  must  die."  The  minor 
premise  makes  a  particular  statement  — "  John  is  a 
man "  —  which  covers  one  case  plainly  included  in 
the  general  class  of  the  major  premise  —  "All  men." 
Since  what  is  affirmed  of  a  class  is  true  of  every  mem- 
ber of  that  class,  the  conclusion  follows,  "John  must 
die." 

It  is  evident  that  the  mind  seldom  reasons  thus  form- 
ally and  consciously.  Yet  this  is  "the  inner  frame- 
work of  every  argument  that  is  founded  on  a  general 
truth."  In  everyday  language  the  orator  might  express 
the  syllogism  in  this  contracted  form  :  "  Since  all  men 
must  die,  it  is  evident  that  John  can  look  forward  to  no 
different  fate."  Now  it  is  self-evident  that  "John  is 
a  man,"  so  the  orator  would  omit  stating  this  as  a 
minor  premise.  When  either  the  major  or  the  minor 
premise  is  so  self-evident  that  one  of  them  may  be 
omitted,  the  contracted  form  (as  above)  is  called  the 
(2)  syllogism  in  enthymeme.  This  is  peculiarly  the 
argument  of  the  orator.  Jesus  Christ,  who  spoke  "  as 
never  man  spake,"  frequently  employed  this  contracted 
syllogistic  form.  The  Beatitudes,  recorded  in  the  fifth 
chapter  of  St.  Matthew,  are  beautiful  examples. 

Expand  the  declaration,  "  Blessed  are  the  merciful, 
for  they  shall  obtain  mercy,"  and  you  have  this 
syllogism  :  — 

Major  Premise  :  They  who  obtain  mercy  are  blessed. 
Minor  Premise  :  The  merciful  obtain  mercy. 
Conclusion  :  Therefore,  the  merciful  are  blessed. 


t8 


THE  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 


Care  must  be  exercised  in  constructing  the  syllogism 
in  enthymeme.  The  danger  lies  in  assuming  that  the 
omitted  premise  is  self-evident,  —  often  it  is  obvious 
to  only  the  speaker,  and  thus  the  argument  is  to  the 
hearer  no  argument  at  all.1 

Clearly,  it  is  most  important  that  the  premises  should 
be  strictly  true  if  we  wish  the  conclusion  to  be  sound. 
Many  orators  recognize  this  by  first  publicly  demonstrat- 
ing the  truth  of  either  one  or  both  of  their  premises 
before  asserting  the  conclusion.  This  is  called  the 
(3)  syllogism  in  enlargement.  It  may  extend  through 
one  paragraph  or  through  many.  Sometimes  it  is 
made  the  framework  for  an  entire  discourse. 

Any  absurdity  may  be  proven  by  admitting  a  false 
premise  as  true.  Take,  for  example,  Shakespeare's 
famous  line  :  — 

Major  Premise:  "All  that  glitters  is  not  gold."2 
Minor  Premise  :  Gold  glitters. 
Conclusion  :  Therefore  gold  is  not  gold. 

If  the  dramatist  had  said :  Not  all  that  glitters  is 
gold,  the  major  premise  would  have  been  correct,  and 
no  false  conclusion  could  have  been  drawn  therefrom. 

1  The  specimens  of  inductive  argument  given  on  pp.  14,  15,  differ  from 
the  contracted  syllogism  (the  syllogism  in  enthymeme)  in  the  fact  that 
the  reasun  given  as  the  basis  of  the  induction  is  not  a  ground  of  />roof,  but  a 
mere  indication  ;  in  the  syllogism  the  premise  is  part  of  the  proof  of  the 
conclusion.  See  Logic,  McCosh,  pp.  161-163  ;  Logic,  John  Stuart  Mill, 
Book  III.  Chapter  8. 

8  Merchant  of  Venice,  Act  II.  Scene  6. 


THE  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 


19 


Sometimes  the  orator  will  expand  the  syllogism  into 
a  chain,  called  sorites. 

A.  The  prisoner  deliberately  administered  arsenic  to  the  man  who 

died. 

B.  He  who  deliberately  administers  poison  with  fatal  results  is 

guilty  of  murder  in  the  first  degree. 

C.  He  who  is  guilty  of  murder  in  the  first  degree  should  be  executed. 

D.  He  who  is  executed  should  be  executed  privately. 

E.  Therefore,  the  prisoner  should  be  executed  privately. 

It  is  evident  that  this  chain  is  a  contraction  of  the 
following  four  syllogisms  :  — 

FIRST  SYLLOGISM 

Major  Premise  (understood):  He  who  administers  arsenic  admin- 
isters poison. 

Minor  Premise  (A  above):  The  prisoner  administered  arsenic  to 

the  man  who  died. 
Conclusion:  Therefore,  the  prisoner  administered  poison  to  the 

man  who  died. 

SECOND  SYLLOGISM 

Major  Premise  (B  above) :  He  who  deliberately  administers 
poison  with  fatal  results  is  guilty  of  murder  in  the  first  degree. 

Minor  Premise  (A  above,  and  conclusion  of  first  syllogism) :  The 
prisoner  deliberately  administered  arsenic  poison  to  the  man 
who  died. 

Conclusion  :  Therefore,  the  prisoner  is  guilty  of  murder  in  the  first 
degree. 

THIRD  SYLLOGISM 

Major  Premise  (C  above):  He  who  is  guilty  of  murder  in  the  first 

degree  should  be  executed. 
Minor  Premise  (conclusion  of  second  syllogism) :  The  prisoner  is 

guilty  of  murder  in  the  first  degree. 
Conclusion  :  Therefore,  the  prisoner  should  be  executed. 


20 


THE  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 


FOURTH  SYLLOGISM 

Major  Premise  (D  p.  19)  :    He  who  is  executed  should  be  exe- 
cuted privately. 

Minor  Premise  (conclusion  of  third  syllogism) :  The  prisoner 

should  be  executed. 
Conclusion  (£  p.  19)  :   Therefore,  the  prisoner  should  be  executed 

privately. 

A  playful  contracted  example  of  sorites  "  is  seen  when 
the  Thracians  let  loose  a  fox  on  a  frozen  river  to  try  the 
ice.  Reynard  put  his  ear  down  and  seemed  to  say, 
'  Whatever  makes  a  noise  moves ;  what  moves  is  not 
frozen  hard  ;  that  which  is  not  hard  is  liquid;  liquid  will 
bend  under  weight ;  therefore,  if  I  perceive  close  to  my 
ear  the  sound  of  water,  it  is  not  frozen,  and  the  ice  is 
too  weak  to  bear  me.'  " 1  The  Thracians  followed  the 
reasoning  of  the  fox,  and  did  not  attempt  to  cross  on 
the  ice.  Of  course  some  of  Reynard's  premises  must 
not  be  pressed  too  far. 

To  enter  into  all  the  possible  variations  of  the  syllo- 
gism is  the  work  of  Particular  Logic,  and  would  be 
useless  to  the  general  student.2 

1  Art  of  Extempore  Speaking,  Bautain,  p.  301. 

2  For  those  who  would  make  further  study  of  the  syllogism  the  follow- 
ing rules  are  given :  1.  In  a  syllogism  there  should  be  only  three  terms. 
2.  Of  these  three  only  one  can  be  the  middle  term.  3.  One  premise  must 
be  affirmative.  4.  The  conclusion  must  be  negative  if  either  premise  is 
negative.    5.  To  prove  a  negative,  one  of  the  premises  must  be  negative. 

Summary  of  Regulating  Principles :  I,  Terms  which  agree  with  the 
same  thing  agree  with  each  other;  and  when  only  one  of  two  terms  agrees 
with  a  third  term,  the  two  terms  disagree  with  each  other.  II.  "  Whatever 
is  affirmed  of  a  class  may  be  affirmed  of  all  the  members  of  that  class,"  and 
"  Whatever  is  denied  of  a  class  may  be  denied  of  all  the  members  of  that 
class." 


THE  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 


21 


(d)  The  joint  inductive  and  deductive  method.  —  It  is 
enough  to  say  here  that  no  reasoner  should  confine  him- 
self to  a  single  logical  method.  Let  him  learn  to  use 
all  methods  with  equal  accuracy  and  facility. 

BREAKING  DOWN  AN  ARGUMENT 

The  orator  frequently  finds  himself  set  in  opposition 
to  another  speaker  whose  arguments  he  must  either 
surpass  or  refute.  How  to  do  the  one  no  instruction 
can  tell  him ;  the  process  of  refutation,  however,  may  be 
definitely  studied.  Sometimes,  but  not  always,  will  it 
suffice  simply  to  present  truth  and  depend  upon  its  force 
to  demolish  the  opposite  position.  Often  more  aggres- 
sive measures  are  needed. 

Comparatively  few  hearers  who  are  actively  against 
you  can  be  won  over  to  be  your  partisans ;  much  of 
your  effort  must  be  to  cause  men  to  get  off  the  fence, 
and  stay  off  — on  your  side.  Now  and  then,  however, 
the  orator's  victory  will  depend  upon  winning  over  a 
stubbornly  adverse  auditor.  It  is  related  of  the  great 
advocate,  Rufus  Choate,  that:  "In  one  jury  address  of 
five  hours,  he  hurled  his  oratorical  artillery  for  three  of 
them  at  the  hard-headed  foreman,  upon  whom  all  his 
bolts  seemed  to  be  spent  in  vain.  At  last  the  iron 
countenance  relaxed,  the  strong  eyes  moistened,  and 
Choate  was  once  more  master  of  the  situation."  1 

There  are  four  ways  to  break  down  an  argument, 
whether  it  has  been  definitely  stated  by  an  opponent,  or 

1  Oratory  and  Orators,  Matthews,  p.  372. 


22 


THE  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 


you  suspect  it  to  exist  in  the  minds  of  those  you  wish  to 
convince.  All  of  these  methods  should  be  employed,  but 
which  of  them  shall  predominate  will  depend  upon  your 
object. 

(a)  The  orator  may  employ  simple  rebuttal,  and  meet 
fact  with  fact,  argument  with  argument. 

(b)  He  may  offer  no  arguments  in  rebuttal,  but,  dis- 
regarding the  opposite  view,  simply  depend  upon  the  power 
of  his  own  affirmative  reasoning. 

(c)  He  may  show  that  no  position  other  thaii  his  own 
can  be  reasonably  held. 

This  third  result  may  be  attained  by :  — 

(i)  Reducing  the  alternative  proposition  to  an  ab- 
surdity (reductio  ad  absurdum). 

The  speaker  proceeds  by  supposing,  for  the  sake  of 
his  argument,  that  the  opposite  of  his  reasoning  is  cor- 
rect. This  supposition  is  then  followed  out  logically, 
until  it  becomes  evident  that  the  assumed  position  is 
absurd.  There  is  room  here  for  the  play  of  a  biting  wit, 
but  the  reasoner's  position  must  be  well  taken  if  he 
would  not  be  retorted  upon  in  kind. 

Example :  A  man  is  charged  with  having  written  a 
treasonous  article.  The  defense  admits,  for  the  sake  of 
the  argument,  that  the  sentiments  are  treasonous,  but 
shows  that  every  one  of  them  is  contained  in  the 
Declaration  of  Independence  and  in  the  Constitution  of 
the  United  States, — this  is  sufficient  to  prove  the  ab- 
surdity of  the  charge. 


THE  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 


23 


(2)  Offering  either  horn  of  a  dilemma. 

This  method  divides  the  opposite  ground  into  the  only 
two  possible  positions,  and  then  confutes  each  by  convinc- 
ing argument.  The  result  is  that  the  reasoner's  position 
is  the  only  one  left,  and  therefore  must  be  adopted. 

A  familiar  example  is  the  following :  The  Roman 
soldiers  declared  that  while  they  were  sleeping  the  Dis- 
ciples came  and  stole  Christ's  body  from  the  tomb. 
Now  the  soldiers  were  either  asleep  or  awake.  If  they 
were  asleep,  were  they  competent  to  testify  that  the  body 
was  stolen  ?  Sleeping  sentinels  deserve  death.  If  they 
were  awake,  why  did  they  not  oppose  the  theft  ?  They 
made  no  outcry.  Therefore,  the  testimony  of  the 
soldiers  is  false,  and  Christ  is  risen  from  the  dead. 

There  is  great  danger  of  false  reasoning  in  employing 
the  dilemma.  "  If  the  dilemma  is  accurate  in  form,  the 
conclusion  follows,  and  the  only  way  of  meeting  it  is  by 
showing  that  the  alternatives  in  the  premises  are  not 
exhaustive  —  that  there  may  be  another  supposition."  1 

The  well-known  dilemma  in  Don  Quixote  is  based 
upon  false  reasoning.  In  brief  it  is  this :  At  one  end 
of  a  bridge  stood  a  courthouse,  at  the  other  a  gallows. 
Every  one  who  sought  to  cross  the  bridge  was  made  to 
answer  two  questions,  under  oath, — Where  are  you 
going?  What  is  your  object  in  going  there?  If  he 
swore  truly,  he  was  permitted  to  go  free.  If  he  swore 
falsely,  he  was  to  be  hanged  on  the  gallows  at  the  other 
end  of  the  bridge. 

1  Logic,  McCosh,  p.  1 5a 


24 


THE  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 


Now  a  man  came  to  the  courthouse  and  made  oath 
that  he  was  going  to  the  other  end  of  the  bridge,  and 
that  his  object  in  going  was  that  he  might  be  hanged. 
The  honest  Sancho  Panza  was  in  a  dilemma :  if  he 
hanged  the  man,  he  must  hang  him  for  telling  the  truth ; 
if  he  made  him  go  free,  the  man  would  deserve  death 
for  false  swearing. 

A  false  dilemma  may  be  answered  by  another.  "  An 
Athenian  mother  said  to  her  son,  '  Do  not  engage  in 
public  affairs ;  for  if  you  do  what  is  just,  men  will  hate 
you,  and  if  you  do  what  is  unjust,  the  gods  will  hate  you.' 
This  the  son  rebutted  by  the  following  retort :  '  I  ought 
to  enter  into  public  affairs;  for  if  I  do  what  is  unjust, 
men  will  love  me,  and  if  I  do  what  is  just,  the  gods  will 
love  me.'  " 

(3)  Logical  elimination  is  the  third  method. 

This  form  of  reasoning  states  "  all  the  possible  aspects 
of  the  question,  then  proceeds  to  eliminate,  one  by  one, 
until  only  the  one  tenable  aspect  is  left." 1 

The  "Unjust  Steward"2  reasoned  by  logical  elimina- 
tion when  he  was  called  to  give  an  account  of  his 
stewardship :  "  Then  said  the  unjust  steward  within 
himself,  What  shall  I  do  ?  for  my  lord  taketh  away  from 
me  the  stewardship :  I  cannot  dig ;  to  beg  I  am 
ashamed.  I  am  resolved  what  to  do,"  etc.  But  he 
failed,  as  many  weak  reasoners  do,  to  enumerate  all  the 
possible  courses  of  action. 

1  Working  Principles  of  Rhetoric,  Genung,  p.  625. 
«  St.  Luke  xvi.  1-8. 


THE  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 


25 


The  fourth  method  of  destructive  argument  remains :  — 

(d)  He  may  point  out  a  fallacy  hi  the  opposite  position. 

A  fallacy  is  any  error  which  makes  reasoning  unsound 
and  inconclusive.  A  fallacious  conclusion  is  also  called 
a  fallacy. 

Whately  includes  the  idea  of  deception  in  his  defini- 
tion when  he  says  that  it  is  "  any  unsound  mode  of  argu- 
ing, which  appears  to  demand  our  conviction,  and  to  be  de- 
cisive of  the  question  in  hand,  when  in  fairness  it  is  not." 

The  orator  must  be  as  quick  to  discern  weakness  in 
his  own  reasoning  as  in  that  of  others.  Stupendous 
issues  have  gone  wrong  because  of  a  single  undetected 
fallacy !  An  elaborate  structure  of  argument  will  totter 
to  its  fall  if  its  foundation  is  proven  to  be  fallacious. 

A  keen  mind  may  avoid  or  detect  a  fallacy  without 
possessing  a  knowledge  of  formal  logic.  The  list  of 
possible  fallacies  is  long  and  intricate,  but  only  a  few 
fundamental  errors  in  reasoning  need  here  be  noted. 

(1)  A  false  conclusion  is  sometimes  drawn  from  true 
premises. 

Logicians  call  this  a  non  sequitur  —  it  does  not  follow; 
the  premise  will  not  warrant  the  conclusion;  as:  — 
Major  Premise  :  All  men  are  animals. 
Minor  Premise  :  A  four-footed  animal  is  not  a  man. 
Conclusion  :  Therefore,  a  four-footed  animal  is  not  an  animal. 

Though  no  one  could  dispute  the  truth  of  the  premises, 
still  they  are  not  logically  related,  and  the  conclusion 
does  not  follow.    The  true  conclusion  is  — 

Therefore,  not  all  animals  are  men. 


26 


THE  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 


Again :  — 

Major  Premise  :  All  free  men  love  liberty. 
Minor  Premise  :  These  men  are  not  free. 
Conclusion  :  Therefore,  these  men  do  not  love  liberty. 

The  fallacy  lies  in  presuming  that  only  free  men  love 
liberty ;  the  conclusion  is  not  sustained  by  the  premises. 

(2)  Words  are  sometimes  used  in  double  senses. 

This  ambiguity  is  very  specious  at  times,  and  can  be 
met  by  those  only  who  are  well  acquainted  with  syno- 
nyms. For  example,  note  the  double  use  of  the  idea 
careless  in  the  following  syllogism  :  — 

Major  Premise  :  All  men  who  have  no  cares  are  happy. 
Minor  Premise  :  Slovenly  men  are  careless. 
Conclusion  :  Therefore,  slovenly  men  are  happy. 

Major  Premise  :  All  cold  is  expelled  by  fire. 
Minor  Premise  :  This  man  has  caught  cold. 
Conclusion  :  Therefore,  his  cold  can  be  expelled  by  fire. 

Sometimes  this  fallacy  is  ridiculed  and  exposed  by 
an  absurd  illustration,  based  upon  a  pun,  as :  — 

Major  Premise  :  A  missionary  is  one  sent. 
Minor  Premise:  The  usual  missionary  contribution  is  one  cent. 
Conclusion:  Therefore,  the  usual  missionary  contribution  is  a 
missionary. 

Or  the  absurdity  may  be  extended  to  a  chain  of  puns, 
as :  — 

A  sheet  of  ruled  paper  is  an  ink-lined  plane. 

An  inclined  plane  is  a  slope  up. 

A  slow  pup  is  a  lazy  dog. 

Therefore,  a  lazy  dog  is  a  sheet  of  ruled  paper. 

This  also  humorously  illustrates  the  fallacy  of  substi- 
tution of  terms,  in  which  one  term  is  deceptively  substi- 


THE  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 


27 


tuted  for  another  until  the  argument  is  thus  speciously 
led  away  from  its  true  conclusion. 

(3)  Begging  the  question  is  the  most  common  of  all 
fallacies. 

The  logicians  term  it  petitio  principii.  It  consists 
in  offering  as  proof  the  very  fact  you  propose  to  prove, 
thus  evading  the  necessity  of  offering  proof.  For  ex- 
ample :  Macaulay's  History  of  England  is  an  authentic 
history,  because  it  contains  an  accurate  account  of  the 
events  of  English  history.  We  know  that  this  account 
is  accurate  because  it  is  contained  in  so  authentic  a  his- 
tory as  Macaulay's. 

One  of  Moli^re's  comedies  contains  a  playful  example 
when  it  is  said  that  opium  produces  sleep  because  of  its 
soporific  qualities. 

(4)  When  this  begging  or  evading  of  the  question  is 
pushed  farther,  so  as  to  reason  in  a  circle,  it  is  called 
the  vicious  circle. 

It  may  be  illustrated  thus :  — 

Proposition  :  Men  ought  not  to  steal : 

A.  Because  it  is  wrong. 

B.  It  is  wrong  because  it  is  contrary  to  the  Moral  Law. 

C.  It  is  contrary  to  the  Moral  Law  because  it  is  forbidden  in  the 

Holy  Scriptures. 

D.  It  is  forbidden  in  the  Holy  Scriptures  because  it  is  contrary  to 

God's  will. 

A.  It  is  contrary  to  God's  will  because  it  is  wrong. 

The  more  extended  the  circle,  and  the  more  involved 
the  statement,  the  more  difficult  it  is  to  detect  this  kind 
of  fallacy. 


28 


THE  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 


(5)  Imperfect  enumeration  is  also  very  common. 

It  consists  in  drawing  a  conclusion  without  taking  into 
account  all  the  facts;  as,  it  might  be  stated  that  all  iso- 
lated inland  bodies  of  water  are  fresh.  In  proof,  every 
such  lake  or  sea  might  be  mentioned,  except  the  Cas- 
pian Sea  and  the  Dead  Sea,  which  are  salt,  and  there- 
fore break  down  the  assertion.  Insufficient  enumeration 
is  a  common  error  of  the  untrained  mind.  Indeed,  good 
natural  reasoners  are  few,  for  it  is  generally  true  that 
education  is  necessary  to  protect  the  mind  from  error. 

15 .  Persuasion 

Persuasion  is  the  art  of  moving  to  action  by  means 
of  entreaty,  reason,  or  emotional  appeal. 

Persuasion  is  a  broader  term  than  Argumentation.  The 
latter  addresses  itself  purely  to  the  intellect ;  persuasion 
goes  farther,  and  usually  employs  argument  merely  #as 
the  basis  of  an  emotional  appeal  with  which  it  hopes  to 
move  the  will  to  action.  Sometimes,  however,  all  ad- 
dress to  reason  is  discarded,  and  a  purely  emotional 
appeal  is  made,  likewise  with  intent  to  bring  about 
action.  Persuasion  may  even  go  so  far  as  to  disregard 
truth,  and  strive  to  carry  the  citadel  of  the  will  by 
assault,  marshaling  prejudice,  imagination,  and  emo- 
tion to  accomplish  the  result.  When  both  forms  of 
discourse  are  skillfully  united,  each  effectively  comple- 
ments the  other,  and  jointly  they  constitute  the  most 
formidable  weapon  of  the  orator.  Nor  is  the  use  of 
persuasion  a  confession  of  weakness  upon  the  part  of 


THE  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 


29 


argumentation;  it  is  rather  a  recognition  of  the  quali- 
ties of  human  nature — factors  never  to  be  disregarded 
by  him  who  would  attract  and  hold  an  audience.  If 
argument  challenges  the  respect  of  those  who  hear, 
persuasion  adds  the  human  touch  to  cold  reason,  turns 
the  marble  to  warm  life,  and  transfuses  respect  with 
sympathy. 

Persuasion  has  three  aspects  :  — 

(a)  The  address  to  the  intellect.  —  This  has  been 
sufficiently  outlined  under  Argumentation. 

(b)  The  appeal  to  the  emotions.  —  It  is  no  disrespect 
to  the  general  audience  to  say  that  hearers  respond 
much  more  readily  to  emotional  than  to  intellectual  ap- 
peals. Indeed,  in  all  mankind  the  emotions  are  the 
springs  of  action.  The  public  speaker  is  therefore 
not  slow  to  see  the  importance  of  understanding  the 
nature  and  the  management  of  this  powerful  force.1 
But  it  is  with  the  orator's  influence  upon  the  feelings, 
not  with  their  psychological  nature,  that  we  have  here 
to  do,  so  that  a  few  practical  observations  will  be 
sufficient. 

(1)  The  orator  himself  must  feel  before  he  can  arouse 
the  emotion  of  others.2  Powerful  emotion  gives  birth 
to  eloquence.  It  is  related  of  Croesus  3  that  his  only 
living  son  was  dumb.  When  Cyrus  captured  Sardis,  a 
soldier,  not  recognizing  Croesus,  was  about  to  give  the 

1  An  admirable  discussion  of  the  Emotions  will  be  found  in  Gordy> 
Psychology,  in  loco. 

2  See  p.  4.  3  Ancient  History,  Rollin,  Book  IV.  Chap.  I.  Art.  I. 


30 


THE  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 


king  a  blow  upon  the  head.  The  emotion  of  fear  and 
love  for  his  father  so  wrought  upon  the  young  prince 
that  he  "  broke  the  string  of  his  tongue,  and  cried  out, 
'  Soldier,  spare  the  life  of  Croesus ! '  "  Thus,  back  of 
all  emotional  appeal  stand  the  two  forces,  real  emotion 
in  the  speaker,1  and  his  own  personality.2 

(2)  The  natural  feelings  of  the  audience  must  be  set  to 
work.  That  is,  no  new  emotions  can  be  imparted  to 
them  ;  but  "  Persuasion  implies  that  some  course  of  con- 
duct shall  be  so  described  or  expressed  as  to  coincide 
or  be  identified  with  the  active  impulses  of  the  individ- 
uals addressed,  and  thereby  command  their  adoption 
of  it  by  the  force  of  their  own  natural  dispositions." 3 

To  this  end  the  orator  must  know  his  audience.4 
Antony  knew  "  what  chords  to  strike  in  a  mob " ; 
Brutus  did  not. 

Handing  to  Guildenstern  a  musical  instrument,  Ham- 
let requests  him  to  play  upon  it.  The  courtier  pro- 
tests that  he  cannot,  whereupon  Hamlet  complains:  — 

"Why,  look  you  now,  how  unworthy  a  thing  you 
make  of  me.  You  would  play  upon  me ;  you  would 
seem  to  know  my  stops ;  you  would  pluck  out  the 
heart  of  my  mystery ;  you  would  sound  me  from  my 
lowest  note  to  the  top  of  my  compass :  and  there  is 
much  music,  excellent  voice,  in  this  little  organ ;  yet 
cannot  you  make  it  speak.  'Sblood,  do  you  think  I 
am  easier  to  be  played  on  than  a  pipe  ?    Call  me  what 


1  See  p.  157. 

8  The  Senses  ana'  the  Intellect,  Bain,  p.  542. 


3  See  p.  93. 

4  See  p.  149. 


THE  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 


31 


instrument  you  will,  though  you  fret  me,  you  cannot 
play  upon  me." 1 

Guildenstern's  task  was  not  an  easy  one,  and  he 
failed  of  his  purpose;  yet  this  is  just  the  work  cut  out 
for  the  persuasive  orator.  In  his  essay  on  Eloquence, 
Emerson  expresses  much  the  same  idea :  — 

"  Him  we  call  an  artist  who  shall  play  on  an  assem- 
bly of  men  as  a  master  on  the  keys  of  a  piano,  —  who, 
seeing  the  people  furious,  shall  soften  and  compose 
them,  shall  draw  them,  when  he  will,  to  laughter  and 
to  tears.  Bring  him  to  his  audience,  and,  be  they  who 
they  may,  —  coarse  or  refined,  pleased  or  displeased, 
sulky  or  savage,  with  their  opinions  in  the  keeping  of 
a  confessor  or  with  their  opinions  in  their  bank  safes,  — 
he  will  have  them  pleased  and  humored  as  he  chooses; 
and  they  shall  carry  and  execute  what  he  bids  them." 

(3)  The  causes  of  feeling  must  be  presented.  "We 
should  feel  grateful,"  is  in  no  sense  an  appeal  to  feel- 
ings; the  vivid  presentation  of  the  causes  of  gratitude 
is  such  an  appeal.  Love  and  hate,  gratitude  and  re- 
venge, generosity  and  cupidity,  admiration  and  con- 
tempt, pathos  and  humor,  sublimity  and  beauty,  cannot 
be  called  forth,  in  either  the  speaker  or  his  audience,  by 
mere  will  power.  However,  they  can  be  evoked  by  the 
will  calling  up  a  picture  of  the  causes  which  lead  to 
particular  emotions.  To  be  told  that  such  and  such 
scenes  are  sublime  will  not  arouse  the  sense  of  sublim- 
ity in  an  audience;  but  painting  a  lofty  and  glowing 

1  Hamlet,  Act  III.  Scene  2. 


32 


THE  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 


word-picture,  dealing  with  vast,  powerful,  and  impres- 
sive objects,  will  arouse  that  feeling.  The  lovable, 
hateful,  admirable,  humorous,  beautiful,  or  whatever, 
characteristics  of  an  object  should  be  set  forth  in  all 
their  native  colors,  and  then  you  may  trust  to  causes 
to  produce  effects.    But  do  not  fail  to  guide  the  causes. 

The  converse  of  this  proposition  is  equally  true :  to 
get  rid  of  an  emotion  it  is  idle  to  say,  "  You  must  not 
feel  thus,"  but  another  and  stronger  emotion  should  be 
relied  upon  to  displace  the  first.  The  best  way  to  dis- 
pel the  anger  of  an  audience  is  to  give  them  something 
more  absorbing,  pleasing,  humorous,  to  think  about. 

(c)  The  appeal  to  the  will  is,  as  we  have  seen,  made 
through  the  emotions  or  through  the  intellect  and  the 
emotions  jointly.  To  arouse  emotions  for  their  own 
sake  may  impart  a  certain  pleasing  titillation,  and  is 
often  the  sole  object  in  some  sorts  of  demonstrative 
oratory,  but  such  an  end  is  entirely  foreign  to  persua- 
sion. Here  the  great  end  is  so  to  guide  thought  and 
feeling,  jointly  or  singly,  as  to  secure  action.  The 
skillful  persuasive  orator  will  take  advantage  of  every 
sigh,  tear,  chuckle,  and  guffaw  in  his  audience  to  cause 
them  to  adopt  his  view  and  act  upon  it.  Antony  was 
not  content  to  read  Caesar's  will,  exhibit  Caesar's  man- 
tle, dwell  upon  Caesar's  virtues;  he  did  not  leave  off 
working  upon  the  mob  until  he  saw  that  their  own  base 
passions  would  lead  them  on  to  deeds  of  furious  ven- 
geance against  the  conspirators,  and  until  with  one 
voice  they  cried  :  — 


THE  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 


33 


"Revenge!  About!  Seek!  Burn!  Fire!  Kill! 
Slay !    Let  not  a  traitor  live !  " 1 

Then,  well  satisfied  with  his  work,  Antony  solilo- 
quizes :  — 

"  Now  let  it  work.  —  Mischief,  thou  art  afoot. 
Take  thou  what  course  thou  wilt."  2 
This  rousing  to  action,  unworthy  though  it  often  may 
be,  is  the  hall-mark  of  pure  oratory.  The  speech  that 
leads  men  up  to  the  gate  of  endeavor  and  cannot  move 
them  to  press  through  its  portals,  is  a  failure,  if  action 
has  been  its  object.  Name  the  preachers,  the  political 
orators,  and  the  agitators,  whose  names  are  on  men's  lips, 
and  you  will  find  that  they  are  the  orators  who  know 
the  art  of  moving  men  to  abandon  their  pampered  sins 
and  their  cherished  causes  in  order  to  adopt  the  life  and 
thought  the  orator  has  urged. 

6.  Summary 

It  has  been  already  intimated  that  all  five  of  these 
forms  of  discourse  may  be  used  in  public  speech,  but  it 
must  not  be  forgotten  that  they  are  seldom  to  be  used 
singly,  —  they  may  be  combined  and  even  modified  to 
suit  your  special  end.  The  tone,  the  temper,  the  spirit 
of  theme,  orator,  and  occasion  must  determine  which 
form  of  discourse  shall  dominate.  The  great  danger  is 
of  failure  to  keep  one  form  so  evidently  predominant 
that  the  hearer  must  recognize  the  use  of  the  others  as 
merely  auxiliary. 

1  Julius  CcEsar,  Act  III.  Scene  2.  a  Ibid, 


CHAPTER  III 


THE  KINDS  OF  PUBLIC  DISCOURSE 

I  take  it  to  be  a  principal  rule  of  life  not  to  be  too  much  addicted 
to  any  one  thing.  —  Terence. 

All  kinds  of  public  discourse  may  be  included  under 
four  heads:  Impromptu  Speeches,  Extemporaneous  Ad- 
dresses, Declamations,  and  Orations. 

I.  Impromptu  Speeches 

Such  are  addresses  delivered  without  preparation. 
The  ability  to  think  on  one's  feet  is  a  gift,  or  attainment, 
_j  at  once  to  be  coveted  and  to  be  feared.  Bismarck  used 
to  call  it  "the  fatal  gift  of  eloquence,"  referring  to  the 
fact  that  those"  who  possess  this  ability  are  strongly 
tempted  to  neglect  preparation,  and  so  to  substitute  an 
array  of  words  for  real  thought.  There  are  occasions, 
however,  when  an  impromptu  speech  is  most  opportune; 
but  rarely,  if  ever,  can  the  need  of  the  hour  be  met  ex- 
cept by  one  who  has  previously  patiently  trained  him- 
self in  the  fundamentals  of  prepared  address.  He  may 
seem  to  be  spinning  the  magic  web  of  eloquence  from 
the  "thin,  invisible  air,"  but  in  reality  he  is  drawing 
from  the  carefully  husbanded  resources  of  past  thought 
34 


THE  KINDS  OF  PUBLIC  DISCOURSE 


35 


and  reading,  and  only  the  occasion  was  needed  to  weave 
the  material  into  effective  form. 

As  a  rule,  impromptu  speakers  are  inexact  in  thought 
and  in  expression,  freely  indulging  in  glittering  nothings, 
and  in  "  epigrams  made  at  the  expense  of  truth."  The 
successful  few,  who  really  speak  ably  "on  the  wing  of 
occasion,"  have  learned  to  do  so  through  the  discipline 
of  prepared  address. 

2.  Extemporaneous  Addresses 

The  word  extemporaneous  has  changed  its  meaning. 
It  is  now  used  to  designate  any  production,  such  as 
a  sermon,  address,  or  argument,  which  has  been  care- 
fully thought  out  before  delivery,  and  yet  not  committed 
entirely,  if  even  in  part,  to  writing.  The  speaker  may 
refer  to  briefs  or  notes  during  the  delivery  of  the  ad- 
dress. It  is  well  to  cultivate  the  art  of  speaking  without 
notes,  for  the  results  —  benefit  to  the  memory,  direct- 
ness and  force  of  presentation,  and  general  impression 
upon  the  audience  —  fully  compensate  for  the  added 
labor  of  preparation  involved. 

3.  Declamations 

This  kind  of  public  effort  may  be  defined  as  a  selec- 
tion of  prose  or  poetry,  recited  in  public  from  memory. 
Some  writers  distinguish  as  declamations  only  such  se- 
lections as  are  either  political  or  forensic,  designating 
all  descriptive  and  poetic  material  as  recitations.  Ora- 


36 


THE  KINDS  OF  PUBLIC  DISCOURSE 


tions  pronounced  by  others  than  their  writers  are  really 
declamations,  and  all  speaking  in  the  drama  is  either 
declamatory  or  recitative. 

4.  Orations 

An  oration  is  a  formally  prepared  and  dignified  dis- 
course, delivered  upon  a  special  occasion,  upon  a  subject 
of  personal  import  to  the  hearer,  and  appeals  primarily 
to  the  emotions. 

Two  points  of  this  definition  require  emphasis,  both 
here  and  in  succeeding  sections. 

(a)  The  truth  of  the  oration  is  of  personal  import  to 
the  hearer.  —  Failing  of  this,  the  discourse  becomes  a 
mere  speech,  moving  no  life-interests  and  impelling  to 
no  action.  Therefore  the  personal  aim  and  tone  deter- 
mine its  subject,  matter,  and  style. 

(b)  Since  it  is  personal,  oratory  appeals  primarily  to 
the  emotiofis.  —  To  be  sure,  it  speaks  also  to  the  intellect, 
and  the  greater  number  of  orations  design  to  move  the 
will;  but  it  is  in  its  appeal  to  the  emotions  that  the 
oration  seeks  to  reach  the  volition,  so  that  herein  also 
oratory  essentially  differs  from  mere  public  speech. 

Many  have  deemed  this  emotional  appeal  to  be  so 
important  that  they  have  narrowed  oratory  down  to 
such  public  speech  as  has  for  its  end  persuasion. 
Thus  Aristotle  conceived  oratory  to  be  "the  faculty 
of  finding  all  the  means  of  persuasion  on  any  subject." 
Important  a  part  as  persuasion  admittedly  plays  in  the 
great  majority  of  orations  the  philosopher's  dictum  is 


THE  KINDS  OF  PUBLIC  DISCOURSE  37 

not  a  definition,  for  many  orations  employ  no  persuasive 
means  whatsoever. 

It  will  be  seen,  then,  that  we  must  carefully  adhere 
to  our  definition  when  considering  the  oration.  Whether 
the  form  adopted  by  the  orator  is  that  of  extempora- 
neous discourse  or  of  the  carefully  written  and  com- 
mitted production,  the  distinctions  just  noted  must  be 
held  in  mind.  The  public  patiently  endures  many 
spoken  essays  and  disquisitions  masquerading  as  ora- 
tions, which  lack  the  essential  characteristics  of  oratory. 
Especially  is  this  true  of  college  platform  efforts. 

The  distinction  between  the  address  to  the  intellect 
and  the  appeal  to  the  emotions  may  be  illustrated  as 
follows :  — 

"A  reasoner,"  Professor  Genung  says,  "who  is  en- 
deavoring to  demonstrate  that  the  planet  Mars  is 
inhabited  is  indeed  handling  an  intricate  argumentative 
problem;  he  is  seeking  to  find  a  truth,  or  at  least  a 
balance  of  probability;  but  if  he  solves  the  problem 
ever  so  clearly,  the  answer  cannot  in  the  smallest  degree 
appeal  to  the  hearer's  will."  It  may  challenge  his 
interest  and  excite  his  thought,  but  it  bears  no  personal 
relation  to  him  and  cannot  arouse  a  single  emotion. 
Compare  with  this  a  notable  episode  in  Daniel  Web- 
ster's career,  graphically  described  by  Dr.  Chauncey 
A.  Goodrich. 

In  the  celebrated  "Dartmouth  College  Case,"  after 
Mr.  Webster  had  exhaustively  expounded  the  law 
governing  private  corporations,  he  ended  with  the 


38  THE  KINDS  OF  PUBLIC  DISCOURSE 

following  peroration,  "the  most  remarkable  ever  deliv- 
ered in  a  purely  civil  suit  involving  no  personal  rights" : — 

"This,  sir,  is  my  case.  It  is  the  case,  not  merely 
of  that  humble  institution,  it  is  the  case  of  every 
college  in  the  land.  It  is  more.  It  is  the  case  of 
every  eleemosynary  institution  throughout  our  coun- 
try—  of  all  those  great  charities  formed  by  the  piety 
of  our  ancestors,  to  alleviate  human  misery,  and  scatter 
blessings  along  the  pathway  of  life.  It  is  more !  It 
is,  in  some  sense,  the  case  of  every  man  among  us 
who  has  property  of  which  he  may  be  stripped,  for 
the  question  is  simply  this  :  Shall  our  State  legislatures 
be  allowed  to  take  that  which  is  not  their  own,  to  turn 
it  from  its  original  use,  and  apply  it  to  such  ends  or 
purposes  as  they  in  their  discretion  shall  see  fit  ? 

"  Sir,  you  may  destroy  this  little  institution ;  it  is 
weak ;  it  is  in  your  hands !  I  know  it  is  one  of  the 
lesser  lights  in  the  literary  horizon  of  our  country. 
You  may  put  it  out.  But,  if  you  do  so,  you  must  carry 
through  your  work !  You  must  extinguish,  one  after 
another,  all  those  greater  lights  of  science,  which,  for 
more  than  a  century,  have  thrown  their  radiance  over 
our  land ! 

"It  is,  sir,  as  I  have  said,  a  small  college,  and  yet 
there  are  those  who  love  it." 

"  Here,"  continues  the  narrator,  "  the  feelings,  which 
he  had  thus  far  succeeded  in  keeping  down,  broke 
forth.  His  lips  quivered;  his  firm  cheeks  trembled 
with  emotion;   his  eyes  filled  with  tears,  his  voice 


THE  KINDS  OF  PUBLIC  DISCOURSE  39 

choked,  and  he  seemed  struggling  to  the  utmost  simply 
to  gain  that  mastery  over  himself  which  might  save 
him  from  an  unmanly  burst  of  feeling.  I  will  not 
attempt  to  give  you  the  few  broken  words  of  tender- 
ness in  which  he  went  on  to  speak  of  his  attachment 
to  the  college.  The  whole  seemed  to  be  mingled 
throughout  with  the  recollections  of  father,  mother, 
brother,  and  all  the  privations  and  trials  through  which 
he  had  made  his  way  into  life.  Every  one  saw  that 
it  was  wholly  unpremeditated,  a  pressure  on  his  heart, 
which  sought  relief  in  words  and  tears. 

"The  court-room  during  these  two  or  three  minutes 
presented  an  extraordinary  spectacle.  Chief  Justice 
Marshall,  with  his  tall  and  gaunt  figure  bent  over,  as 
if  to  catch  the  slightest  whisper,  the  deep  furrows  of 
his  cheek  expanded  with  emotion,  and  his  eyes  suffused 
with  tears ;  Mr.  Justice  Washington  at  his  side,  —  with 
his  small  and  emaciated  frame,  and  countenance  more 
like  marble  than  I  ever  saw  on  any  other  human 
being,  —  leaning  forward  with  an  eager,  troubled  look ; 
and  the  remainder  of  the  court,  at  the  two  extremities, 
pressing,  as  it  were,  toward  a  single  point,  while  the 
audience  below  wrapping  themselves  round  in  closer 
folds  beneath  the  bench,  to  catch  each  look  and  every 
movement  of  the  speaker.  If  a  painter  could  give  us 
the  scene  on  canvas,  —  those  forms  and  countenances, 
and  Daniel  Webster  as  he  stood  there  in  the  midst,  — 
it  would  be  one  of  the  most  touching  things  in  the 
history  of  eloquence." 


CHAPTER  IV 


THE  KINDS  OF  ORATORY 

Oratory  may  be  symbolized  by  a  warrior's  eye,  flashing  from 
under  a  philosopher's  brow.  —  Hare,  Guesses  at  Truth. 

Since  the  days  of  Aristotle  thinkers  have  generally- 
divided  orations  into  three  classes.  To  these  the  advent 
of  Christianity  and  the  apostolic  propaganda  have  added 
a  fourth,  that  of  the  pulpit. 

I.    Forensic,  or  Legal,  Oratory 

Webster's  plea  in  the  "  Dartmouth  College  Case  "  is  an 
example  of  this  kind  of  oratory.  It  proposes  as  its  end 
the  obtaining  and  the  protecting  of  personal,  corpo- 
rate, or  civil  rights.  The  Greeks  and  Romans  brought 
this  style  of  oratory  to  a  high  degree  of  perfection, 
introducing,  however,  much  material  which  to-day 
would  be  ruled  out  in  any  court  of  law.  Modern  na- 
tions have  also  given  forensics  much  attention,  but 
with  the  growth  of  the  body  of  law  this  type  of  oratory 
has  decidedly  declined.  Forensic  oratory  is  of  two 
kinds,  —  addresses  to  judges  and  addresses  to  juries. 

2.    Deliberative,  or  Political,  Oratory 

An  excellent  example  is  Burke's  Speech  on  Concili- 
ation with  the  American  Colonies.    Any  speech  ad- 
40 


THE  KINDS  OF  ORATORY 


41 


dressed  to  a  number  of  deliberators  with  the  object  of 
inducing  them  to  decide  for  or  against  the  question  at 
issue  is  termed  forensic.  The  type  dates  from  remote 
antiquity,  and  literature  has  preserved  to  us  many  bril- 
liant specimens. 

To-day  the  deliberative  orator  has  abundant  oppor- 
tunity for  the  display  of  his  powers,  not  alone  in  the 
many  assemblies  where  questions  are  mooted  and  de- 
cided, but  before  audiences  gathered  to  consider  im- 
portant questions  of  varied  sorts.  Deliberative  oratory- 
deals  with  personal  questions  only  as  they  affect  the 
interests  of  a  body  of  individuals. 

3.    Sacred,  or  Pulpit,  Oratory 

Beecher's  sermon  on  Sowing  and  Reaping  is  a 
well-known  example.  The  importance  of  pulpit  ora- 
tory is  greater  than  that  of  any  other  type,  alike  because 
of  the  number  of  those  who  are  influenced  by  its  power, 
and  from  the  nature  of  the  issues  involved.  Pulpit  ora- 
tory is  generally  personal,  the  abstruse  theological  spec- 
ulations of  a  century  ago  having  given  place  to  the 
more  practical  sermons  of  to-day. 

4.    Demonstrative,  or  Occasional,  Oratory 

This  is  the  most  widely  inclusive  of  all  types.  It 
may  propose  for  itself  any  one  of  a  number  of  ends  — 
as  will  presently  appear. 

Forensic,  deliberative,  and  pulpit  orators  seek  to  in- 


42 


THE  KINDS  OF  ORATORY 


fluence  the  intellect  and  emotions  so  as  to  move  the 
will.  This  is  not  necessarily  the  case  in  demonstrative 
oratory.  It  seeks  to  impress  a  truth  rather  than  to 
impel  to  action ;  to  please  thought  and  feeling,  rather 
than  to  arouse  motive ;  to  make  just  and  fitting  observa- 
tions, rather  than  to  convince  the  judgment.  An  ex- 
amination of  the  several  kinds  of  demonstrative  orations 
will  serve,  better  than  definition,  to  make  this  difference 
apparent. 

The  most  frequent  type  is  the  (a)  Occasional,  under 
which  are  included  orations  delivered  upon  special 
occasions,  as  (i)  anniversary  (as  Chauncey  M.  Depew's 
oration  on  the  One  Hundredth  Anniversary  of  the 
Inauguration  of  President  George  Washington);  (2) dedi- 
catory (as  Abraham  Lincoln's  Gettysburg  Speech) ;  and 
(3)  commemorative  (as  Daniel  Webster's  oration  on  the 
lives  of  John  Adams  and  Thomas  Jefferson). 

(b)  Eulogy  and  Invective,  as  kinds  of  demonstrative 
oratory,  must  be  considered  as  but  a  single  form.  The 
terms  are  in  themselves  sufficiently  definitive.  When 
the  speaker  both  eulogizes  the  admirable  qualities  and 
denounces  the  faults  of  a  character,  striving  to  present 
a  just  balance  of  criticism,  the  discourse  is  called  an 
appreciation,  meaning  an  estimate. 

In  his  Modem  American  Oratory,  R.  C.  Ringwalt 
observes  that  two  methods  of  handling  personal  sub- 
jects are  commonly  adopted :  "The  first  method,  once 
much  followed,  is  what  may  be  called  the  biographical 
method.    A  life  is  treated  chronologically.    From  the 


THE  KINDS  OF  ORATORY 


43 


early  years  to  the  end  the  eulogist  follows  with  minute- 
ness the  career  of  the  subject,  reserving  only  a  brief 
space  before  the  conclusion  for  observations  and  reflec- 
tions." (Compare  Edward  Everett's  eulogy  of  Lafay- 
ette.) The  second  method  is  the  one  employed  by  most 
speakers,  because  it  is  more  likely  to  prove  suggestive 
to  the  speaker  and  interesting  to  the  audience.  Instead 
of  giving  a  chronological  narrative,  "  an  effort  is  made 
to  single  out  and  set  forth  clearly  what  the  subject  of 
the  eulogy  accomplished  in  his  life ;  what  he  stood  for ; 
what  influence  he  exerted ;  and  what  is  likely  to  be  his 
place  in  history."  The  advantages  of  this  latter  method 
are  obvious. 

(c)  Popular  Oratory  may  serve  as  a  general  term 
under  which  to  group  all  remaining  styles  of  demon- 
strative orations.  Popular  lectures,  addresses  before 
societies  and  schools  on  special  occasions,  school  and 
college  orations,  and  after-dinner  oratory  should  be 
classified  under  this  general  head.  There  is  here  so 
much  room  for  individual  taste,  and  there  are  so  many 
limitations  arising  from  the  nature  of  the  occasion,  that 
special  comment  would  be  valueless.  The  observations 
presented  in  Part  II.  will  be  found  to  bear  more  par- 
ticularly upon  Demonstrative  and  upon  Pulpit  Oratory. 


CHAPTER  V 


ELOQUENCE 

List  his  discourse  of  war,  and  you  shall  hear 
A  fearful  battle  rendered  you  in  music. 

—  Shakespeare,  Henry  V.  Act  I.  Scene  I. 

Sometimes  the  orator  rises  to  the  "vehement  sim- 
plicity "  of  eloquence.  Emerson  said  that  eloquence 
is  "  a  taking  sovereign  possession  of  the  audience " ; 
Lyman  Beecher  described  it  as  "  logic  on  fire " ; 
and  De  Quincey  wrote,  "  By  eloquence  we  understand 
the  outflow  of  powerful  feelings  upon  occasions  fitted 
to  excite  them."  But  this  apotheosis  of  soul-communi- 
cation can  neither  be  taught  nor  exactly  defined  —  we 
must  approach  it  by  exposition,  precept,  and  example. 
Thus  Daniel  Webster  has  characterized  it :  — 

"  When  public  bodies  are  to  be  addressed  on  momen- 
tous occasions,  when  great  interests  are  at  stake,  and 
strong  passions  excited,  nothing  is  valuable  in  speech 
farther  than  as  it  is  connected  with  high  intellectual 
and  moral  endowments.  Clearness,  force,  and  earnest- 
ness are  the  qualities  which  produce  conviction.  True 
eloquence,  indeed,  does  not  consist  in  speech.  It  can- 
not be  brought  from  far.  Labor  and  learning  may  toil 
for  it,  but  they  will  toil  in  vain.    Words  and  phrases 


ELOQUENCE 


45 


may  be  marshaled  in  every  way,  but  they  cannot  com. 
pass  it.  It  must  exist  in  the  man,  in  the  subject,  and 
in  the  occasion.  Affected  passion,  intense  expression, 
the  pomp  of  declamation,  all  may  aspire  to  it;  they 
cannot  reach  it.  It  comes,  if  it  comes  at  all,  like  the 
outbreaking  of  a  fountain  from  the  earth,  or  the  bursting 
forth  of  volcanic  fires,  with  spontaneous,  original,  native 
force.  The  graces  taught  in  the  schools,  the  costly 
ornaments  and  studied  contrivances  of  speech,  shock 
and  disgust  men,  when  their  own  lives,  and  the  fate 
of  their  wives,  their  children,  and  their  country,  hang 
on  the  decision  of  the  hour.  Then  words  have  lost 
their  power,  rhetoric  is  vain,  and  all  elaborate  oratory 
contemptible.  Even  genius  itself  then  feels  rebuked 
and  subdued,  as  in  the  presence  of  higher  qualities. 
Then  patriotism  is  eloquent;  then  self-devotion  is  elo- 
quent. The  clear  conception,  outrunning  the  deduc- 
tions of  logic,  the  high  purpose,  the  firm  resolve,  the 
dauntless  spirit,  speaking  on  the  tongue,  beaming  from 
the  eye,  informing  every  feature,  and  urging  the  whole 
man  onward,  right  onward  to  his  object,  —  this,  this  is 
eloquence ;  or,  rather,  it  is  something  greater  and  higher 
than  all  eloquence,  —  it  is  action,  noble,  sublime,  god- 
like action." 

Thus  we  see  that  a  high  and  noble  attitude  of  mind 
is  inseparable  from  true  eloquence,  and  therefore  this 
rare  excellence  is  found  oftenest  in  one  who  feeds  his 
nature  upon  lofty  truth  and  expends  his  life  in  unselfish 
service.    Eloquence  is  born  of  just  such  a  sensitive 


46 


ELOQUENCE 


spirit,  powerfully  wrought  upon  by  an  unusual  thought, 
feeling,  event,  or  occasion. 

It  is  important  to  observe  that  eloquence  is  not  purely 
subjective ;  it  needs  the  responsive  listener.  No  orator, 
how  rare  soever  his  gifts,  can  rise  to  eloquence  unless 
he  and  his  audience  come  to  sympathize.  Their  thoughts 
and  feelings  must  fuse.  Not  only  must  the  orator  win 
his  hearers  to  his  thought,  feeling,  and  will,  but  he 
must  be  responsive  to  their  influence  as  well.  It  is 
this  mutual  inspiration,  at  once  so  elusive  and  so  essen- 
tial, which  creates  that  remarkable  combination  of 
art,  gift,  and  environment  that  we  call  eloquence. 
Macaulay  records  of  Pitt  that  "the  lofty  and  spirit- 
stirring  eloquence  which  had  made  him  supreme  in  the 
House  of  Commons,  often  fell  dead  in  the  House  of 
Lords."  Later  we  shall  see  that,  though  eloquence 
cannot  be  taught,  the  orator  may  do  much  to  bring 
about  the  conditions,  both  in  himself  and  in  his  audi- 
ence, which  make  eloquence  possible. 


PART  II 
PREPARATION  OF  THE  DISCOURSE 


Prepared  on  every  side.  — 


Motto  of  the  Irish  Earl  of  Cavan. 


In  literary  as  in  all  other  art,  structure  is  all-important,  felt, 
or  painfully  missed,  everywhere  —  that  architectural  conception  of 
work,  which  foresees  the  end  in  the  beginning  and  never  loses  sight 
of  it,  and  in  every  part  is  conscious  of  all  the  rest,  till  the  last  sen- 
tence does  but,  with  undiminished  vigor,  unfold  and  justify  the 
first  —  a  condition  of  literary  art,  which  ...  I  shall  call  the  neces- 
sity of  mind  in  style.  —  Walter  Pater. 


PART  II 


PREPARATION  OF  THE  DISCOURSE 

Only  when  the  speaker  understands  the  nature  of 
public  speech,  is  conversant  with  the  literary  forms  in 
which  it  may  be  cast,  and  has  determined  upon  the 
kind  of  speech  or  oratory  he  will  attempt,  —  only  then 
can  he  intelligently  approach  the  work  of  specific  prepa- 
ration. The  orator  having  thoroughly  mastered  these 
fundamental  ideas,  briefly  outlined  in  the  preceding 
chapters,  the  work  of  preparation  is  likely  to  proceed 
much  more  rapidly  and  effectively. 

It  should  scarcely  be  necessary  to  dwell  upon  the 
importance  of  preparation,  yet  the  prevalence  of  ill- 
considered  addresses  and  the  presumptuous  reliance 
placed  by  many  in  the  ability  (?)  to  improvise,  prove 
that  too  many  speakers  either  prepare  badly  or  prepare 
not  at  all. 

Plutarch  assures  us  that  Demosthenes  gave  closest 
attention  to  preparation.  From  this  some  unthinking 
persons  inferred  that  he  was  not  a  great  orator. 
"  Pytheas,  in  particular,  told  him  that  all  his  arguments 
smelled  of  the  lamp.  Demosthenes  retorted  sharply 
upon  him  :  '  Yes,  indeed,  but  your  lamp  and  mine,  my 
friend,  are  not  conscious  to  the  same  labors.'  To  others 
49 


5o 


PREPARATION  OF  THE  DISCOURSE 


he  did  not  pretend  to  deny  his  previous  application,  but 
told  them  he  neither  wrote  the  whole  of  his  orations, 
nor  spoke  without  first  committing  part  to  writing."  1 

Tytler  says  of  this  same  great  orator :  "  His  voice 
was  harsh  and  uncouth,  his  articulation  indistinct,  and 
his  gestures  awkward  and  constrained ;  hut,  sensible  of 
his  defects,  he  labored  night  and  day  in  private  exer- 
cises of  elocution,  till  he  completely  subdued  them; 
and  then,  confident  of  his  powers,  he  broke  forth  at 
once,  the  most  distinguished  orator  of  his  age." 

The  lives  of  orators  abound  with  illustrations  of  this 
character.  Surely  no  one  who  seriously  hopes  to  attract 
and  hold  an  audience  will  think  of  his  hearers  so  con- 
temptuously as  to  under-estimate  the  importance  of 
preparation. 

1  Life  of  Demosthenes,  Plutarch. 


CHAPTER  VI 

ORIGINALITY 

There  are  two  kinds  of  artists  in  this  world  :  those  that  work 
because  the  spirit  is  in  them,  and  they  cannot  be  silent  if  they 
would,  and  those  that  speak  from  a  conscientious  desire  to  make 
apparent  to  others  the  beauty  that  has  awakened  their  own  admira- 
tion. —  Anna  Katherine  Green,  The  Sword  of  Damocles. 

Samuel  Johnson  once  said  of  Gray,  the  author  of  the 
Elegy,  "  He  was  dull  in  a  new  way,  and  that  made  many 
people  think  him  great."  1  This  savage  criticism  time 
has  disallowed,  but  the  critic  has  at  least  thrown  a  side- 
light upon  originality.  The  great  mass  of  alleged  origi- 
nal matter  is  merely  old  thought  reset  in  new  form,  or 
a  new  combination  of  old  materials.  Originality  is  a 
relative  term. 

I .    The  Test  of  Originality 

It  is  more  important  to  know  whether  or  not  your 
own  mind  is  creative  than  to  determine  that  fact  as  to 
others.    Here  is  a  sure  test :  — 

How  does  my  mind  act  when  it  receives  new  truth  ? 

Does  it  enjoy  the  truth,  and  then  give  it  out  again 
unaltered,  in  exactly  or  substantially  the  same  words  ? 


1  Life  of  Johnson,  Boswell,  p.  241. 
51 


52 


ORIGINALITY 


That  is  quotation,  if  credit  is  given  to  the  author; 
otherwise  it  is  literary  theft. 

Does  my  mind  feel  stimulated,  upon  receiving  truth, 
to  produce  other  thoughts,  and  yet  utter  the  received 
truth  without  change  ?    That  is  expansion. 

Does  my  mind  not  only  receive  a  stimulus  from  new 
truth,  but  also  assimilate  it,  transform,  clarify,  and  am- 
plify it,  so  that  in  uttering  that  truth  I  utter  it  stamped 
with  my  own  image  and  superscription  ?  That  is  origi- 
nality. 

That  is  the  test.  It  is  as  high  as  it  is  final.  An 
original  thought  is  a  new  birth,  —  the  fruit  of  a  union  of 
truth  from  without  and  of  thought  from  within.  A  fer- 
tile intellect,  open  to  truth,  sensitive  to  take  it  in,  and 
ready  both  to  act  upon  it  and  to  be  acted  upon  by  it, 
is  that  rarest  of  all  intellectual  facts,  an  original  mind. 

In  Vawder's  Understudy  James  Knapp  Reeve  makes 
one  of  his  characters  remark  that  an  original  idea  comes 
to  a  mind  about  once  in  a  lifetime,  and  when  it  does 
come  it  should  be  entertained.  This  is  too  high  an 
estimate  for  most  minds.  Ingenuity,  novelty,  clever- 
ness, they  may  have,  but  originality  never.  This  is  not 
a  reason  for  disparagement.  They  are  in  good  com- 
pany, and  have  plenty  of  it.  Even  an  original  mind 
cannot  always  demonstrate  its  fertility,  and  many  keen, 
cultured  intellects  never  rise  to  originality  in  the  high 
sense  just  set  forth.  Furthermore,  some  truths  never 
do  any  more  than  stimulate  even  a  fertile  mind,  because 
they  are  complete  in  themselves.    To  change  would  be 


ORIGINALITY 


53 


to  destroy  them.  Their  function  is  not  to  fructify  but 
to  stimulate  the  mind  into  which  they  enter.  And  a 
large  part  of  our  mental  output  is  the  result  of  such 
stimulating  suggestion.  This  is  not  originality,  in  the 
strictest  sense,  though  such  it  is  according  to  the  popu- 
lar use  of  the  term.  It  is  the  only  creative  spirit 
which  many  able  orators  possess,  and  it  is  second  rate 
only  to  pure  originality  itself.  Popularly,  we  call  that 
man  original  who  stands  on  his  own  feet,  uses  the 
thoughts  of  others  only  to  stimulate  and  supplement  his 
own,  and  who  does  his  best  to  color  borrowed  thought 
with  the  hue  of  his  own  personality.  Such  a  man,  if 
he  be  not  a  creator,  is  at  least  a  thinker,  and  a  thinker 
need  never  be  a  literary  thief. 

A  suggestive  thought  entering  a  well-furnished  mind 
is  sure  to  call  up  images,  reflections,  and  trains  of  inter- 
esting ideas  which  will  prove  to  be  most  valuable  ora- 
torical material.  Such  stimuli  must  by  no  means  be 
under-estimated.  If  genuine  originality  is  as  rare  as 
Mr.  Reeve  suggests,  the  entrance  of  any  thought  that 
will  set  the  mind  to  working  should  be  welcome  indeed. 

2.   The  Sources  of  Originality 

Rare  as  genuine  originality  is,  the  number  of  those 
who  attain  thereto  would  be  largely  increased  did  orators 
make  it  the  object  of  serious  effort. 

A  study  of  the  mental  habits  of  original  thinkers  and 
speakers  reveals  several  suggestive  facts. 

(a)  Original  minds  are  observers  of  nature.  —  The 


54 


ORIGINALITY 


same  perennial  source-spring  is  open  to  all.  Upon  every 
hand  are  the  facts  of  inanimate  and  animate  nature  which 
spoke  so  powerfully  to  others.  Human  beings  are  much 
the  same  to-day  as  when  their  characteristic  traits  proved 
so  suggestive  to  Attic  and  to  Roman  orators.  It  needs 
but  an  alert,  receptive  mind  to  take  these  things  and 
transform  them  into  material  for  oratory.  Ruskin  took 
a  common  rock-crystal  and  saw  hidden  within  its  stolid 
heart  lessons  which  have  not  yet  ceased  to  move  men's 
lives.  Beecher  stood  for  hours  before  the  window  of  a 
jewelry  store  thinking  out  analogies  between  jewels 
and  the  souls  of  men.  Gough  saw  in  a  single  drop  of 
water  enough  truth  wherewith  to  quench  the  thirst  of 
five  thousand  souls.  Thoreau  sat  so  still  in  the  shadowy 
woods  that  birds  and  insects  came  and  opened  up  their 
secret  lives  to  his  eye.  Emerson  observed  the  soul  of  a 
man  so  long  that  at  length  he  could  say,  "  I  cannot  hear 
what  you  say,  for  seeing  what  you  are."  Preyer  for 
three  years  studied  the  life  of  his  babe  and  so  became 
an  authority  upon  the  child  mind.  Observation !  Most 
men  are  blind.  There  are  a  thousand  times  as  many 
hidden  truths  and  undiscovered  facts  about  us  to-day  as 
have  made  discoverers  famous, — facts  waiting  for  some 
one  to  "pluck  out  the  heart  of  their  mystery."  But  so 
long  as  men  go  about  the  search  with  eyes  that  see  not, 
so  long  will  these  hidden  pearls  lie  in  their  shells.  Not 
an  orator  but  who  could  more  effectively  point  and 
feather  his  shafts  were  he  to  search  nature  rather  than 
libraries.    Too  few  can  see  "  sermons  in  stones"  and 


ORIGINALITY 


55 


"books  in  the  running  brooks,"  because  they  are  so 
used  to  seeing  merely  sermons  in  books  and  only  stones 
in  running  brooks.  Sir  Philip  Sidney  had  a  saying, 
"  Look  in  thy  heart  and  write ; "  Massillon  explained 
his  astute  knowledge  of  the  human  heart  by  saying,  "  I 
learned  it  by  studying  myself ; "  Byron  says  of  John 
Locke  that  "  all  his  knowledge  of  the  human  under- 
standing was  derived  from  studying  his  own  mind." 
Since  multiform  nature  is  all  about  us,  originality  ought 
not  to  be  so  rare. 

(b)  Original  minds  have  learned  to  think  consecutively. 
—  This  is  an  age  of  second-hand  thinking.  We  all 
ask  for  our  milk  malted,  our  meats  peptonized,  and  our 
books  digested.  Reviews,  condensations,  and  reference 
books  are  quite  as  typical  of  the  intellectual  life  of  the 
period  as  are  labor-saving  devices  characteristic  of  the 
material  world.  Short  cuts  are  the  mania  of  the  age. 
One  marked  result  of  all  this  is  its  effect  upon  the 
mental  powers.  Men  are  losing  both  desire  and  ability 
to  think  consecutively  along  other  than  business  lines. 
True,  education  is  in  part  meeting  this  lack ;  but  only 
in  part,  for  education  cannot  cope  with  the  hop-skip- 
and-jump  mental  habits  fixed  by  the  fragmentary 
articles  which  the  average  man  skims  over  in  his  daily 
reading.  A  book  is  generally  voted  dry-as-dust  which 
requires  consecutive  thought. 

Dr.  Nicholas  Murray  Butler  proposes  five  tests  of  edu- 
cation, in  the  broadest  sense  of  the  term,  and  among 
them  he  places  reflection.    Here  they  are  :  — 


56 


ORIGINALITY 


1.  Correctness  and  precision  in  the  use  of  the  mother 
tongue. 

2.  Those  refined  and  gentle  manners  which  are  the 
expression  of  fixed  habits  of  thought  and  of  action. 

3.  The  power  and  habit  of  reflection. 

4.  The  power  of  intellectual  growth. 

5.  Efficiency,  the  power  to  do. 

But  if  the  lack  of  consecutive  thinking  is  such  a 
general  failing,  all  the  greater  are  the  rewards  offered 
to  the  public  speaker  who  to  his  powers  of  observa- 
tion is  willing  to  add  the  ability  to  reflect,  and  to  think 
systematically.  Originality  waits  for  him  to  crown  his 
desire  with  gift. 

(c)  Original  minds  cherish  the  companionship  of  great 
thoughts.  —  How  much  might  here  be  said  !  Three  sen- 
tences must  suffice.  He  who  would  produce  original 
ideas  must  fertilize  his  mind  by  contact  with  the  epoch- 
making  thoughts  of  all  ages.  These  he  will  find  pre- 
served to  him  in  a  few  great  books,  and  animating  the 
minds  of  living  men  and  women  who  are  worth  know- 
ing. If  there  is  anything  in  a  mind,  such  companion- 
ship will  call  it  forth. 

(d)  Original  minds  dare  to  be  themselves.1  —  Dare ! 
The  word  is  not  ill-chosen.  The  penalty  for  failure  is 
as  severe  as  the  meed  of  success  is  great.  "  Insist  on 
yourself  —  never  imitate,"  said  Emerson,  —  himself  a 
most  individual  man.  Yet  originality  has  cost  many 
a  man  martyrdom ;  countless  others,  loss  of  popularity  ; 

1  See  p.  93. 


ORIGINALITY 


57 


and  all,  some  more  or  less  serious  temporary  sacrifice. 
"  Nothing  succeeds  like  success."  Successful  men  may- 
be canonized,  unsuccessful  fellows  are  cannonaded. 

The  quality  of  an  earnest  mind  may  be  tested  in  this : 
Am  I  willing  to  stand  on  my  own  feet  now  —  and  so 
strengthen  myself  for  future  walking,  even  by  my  very 
stumbling  efforts  —  rather  than  to  use  crutches  for  the 
sake  of  more  rapid  progress  in  the  beginning?  The 
young  speaker  who  dares  to  be  himself,  casting  artifi- 
ciality to  the  winds,  will  begin  by  making  less  brilliant 
speeches  than  his  companions  who  copy  and  crib,  but 
his  power  and  invention  will  increase,  and  he  will  end 
far  in  advance  of  his  less  original  rivals.  Far  better 
the  occasional  blunders  of  an  original  speaker  than  the 
inane  and  icy  correctness  of  a  lifeless  imitator. 

Doubtless  natural  gifts  count  for  much,  but  let  the 
young  orator  patiently  observe  nature,  let  him  practise 
consecutive  thinking,  let  him  cherish  the  companion- 
ship of  great  thoughts,  let  him  dare  to  be  himself,  and 
his  mind  will  come  to  be  as  original  as  its  native 
capacity  will  allow. 


CHAPTER  VII 


THE  SUBJECT 

Suit  your  topics  to  your  strength, 
And  ponder  well  your  subject,  and  its  length ; 
Nor  lift  your  load,  before  youVe  quite  aware 
What  weight  your  shoulders  will,  or  will  not,  bear. 

—  Byron,  Hints  from  Horace. 

The  speaker  is  not  always  at  liberty  to  select  his 
theme.  Moreover,  circumstances  frequently  place  such 
limitations  upon  its  choice,  if  they  do  not  positively 
decide  what  topic  would  be  appropriate,  that  the  field 
of  selection  is  immediately  narrowed  —  in  many  in- 
stances a  not  undesirable  condition  of  affairs. 

A  primary  consideration  in  selecting  a  subject  is  — 

I     What  is  Due  the  Occasion? 

Every  address  should  be  the  best  possible  under 
the  circumstances,  and  therefore  you  must  accurately 
measure  those  circumstances.  Even  though  you  be 
neither  a  prophet  nor  the  son  of  a  prophet,  there  are 
some  things  you  must  try  to  forecast ;  for  instance : 
Who  will  be  there  ?  What  subjects  should  interest 
them  ?  What  will  be  the  intelligence  of  the  average 
auditor  ?  What  subjects  are  timely  ?  What  other 
58 


THE  SUBJECT 


59 


speakers  or  exercises  are  on  the  program  ?  What  is 
my  position  on  the  program  ?  What  will  be  the  spirit 
of  the  audience?  What  is  the  object  of  the  meeting? 
Exactly  how  many  minutes  are  assigned  to  me  ? 

So  important  are  these  questions  that  upon  their 
answers  depends  the  fitness  of  the  discourse  to  the 
occasion ;  in  other  words,  its  success  or  its  failure. 
"  He  is  a  happy  speaker " ;  "  He  always  hits  the  nail 
on  the  head  "  ;  "  He  was  like  a  square  peg  in  a  round 
hole";  "He  floundered  like  a  fish  out  of  water"  — 
it  is  for  the  speaker  to  choose  which  of  the  foregoing 
figures  shall  aptly  characterize  his  platform  effort.1 

2.    What  is  Due  the  Subject? 

Some  themes  may  be  treated  satisfactorily  in  a  few 
minutes,  while  others  require  hours.  It  is  manifestly 
due  a  subject  that  you  reject  it  if  the  circumstances 
forbid  its  adequate  treatment.  There  is  something  per- 
sonal in  a  subject,  something  which  seems  to  resent  an 
unworthy  handling.  And  no  speaker  has  a  right  to 
attempt  a  theme  unless  there  is  some  assurance  of  his 
being  able,  under  the  circumstances,  to  discuss  it  ade- 
quately. If  the  subject  is  too  broad,  it  is  often  possible 
to  modify  or  adapt  it.  Indeed,  most  young  speakers 
make  the  mistake  of  selecting  too  broad  a  subject;  for, 
strange  as  it  may  seem  to  the  uninitiated,  the  narrower 
the  subject,  the  easier  the  treatment.    It  would  be  quite 

1  See  p.  149. 


6o 


THE  SUBJECT 


impossible  adequately  to  discuss  "  The  Suffrage  Ques- 
tion "  within  such  limits  of  time  as  are  ordinarily  set  for 
an  oration ;  whereas  "A  Limited  Suffrage  for  the  Negro," 
or  "Woman's  Ballot  in  National  Elections,"  could  be 
handled  within  a  reasonable  period  of  time.  But  even 
with  such  specific  subjects  as  the  foregoing,  care  must 
be  taken  to  make  the  treatment  general,  or  particular, 
according  to  the  occasion,  as  well  as  to  state  clearly 
and  forcefully  the  dominant  proposition  of  the  dis- 
course. Though  hackneyed  subjects  should  be  avoided, 
new  light  on  old  themes  is  always  welcome,  and  some 
questions  are  of  perennial  interest.  Above  all,  the  sub- 
ject must  have  unity ;  that  is,  it  must  not  be  a  medley 
of  loosely  connected  thoughts.1 

3.    What  is  Due  the  Speaker  f 

The  author  does  not  share  the  opinion  of  some,  that 
an  address  is  altogether  for  the  audience.  There  are 
also,  as  we  have  seen,  some  things  due  the  subject,  and 
just  as  certainly  some  things  are  due  the  speaker. 

No  one  has  a  moral  right  to  make  himself  ridiculous 
upon  a  serious  occasion.  The  speaker  may  fittingly 
repeat  the  Psalmist's  prayer :  "  Keep  back  thy  servant 
also  from  presumptuous  sins,"  for  offenses  of  this  type 
before  an  audience  are  distressingly  common.  The  man 
who  does  not  know  his  own  limitations  will  scarcely  be 
able  to  profit  his  hearers.     It  is,  therefore,  due  the 

1  See  p.  103. 


THE  SUBJECT  6 1 


speaker  that  he  should  not  select  a  theme  with  which 
he  is  unacquainted,  or  which  is  beyond  his  abilities ; 
that  he  should  discard  a  subject  too  heavy  or  too  trivial 
to  be  handled  satisfactorily  in  the  time  assigned,  either 
for  preparation  or  for  delivery ;  and  that,  in  fine,  he 
should  consider  carefully  the  three  phases  of  obligation 
set  forth  in  this  section  before  selecting  or  accepting  a 
subject.1 

1  The  two  methods  which  may  be  employed  in  selecting  a  subject  are 
discussed  in  section  i  of  Chapter  IX. 


CHAPTER  VIII 


THE  TITLE 
Call  things  by  their  names.  —  Robert  Hall. 

There  is  a  distinction  to  be  made  between  the  subject 
of  a  discourse  and  its  title.  The  former  is  the  substance, 
che  latter  the  name. 

I.  An  Attractive  Title 

Several  important  ends  may  be  gained  by  the  choice 
of  an  attractive  title :  it  is  likely  to  create  a  desire  to 
hear  the  address,  and  so  bring  hearers  to  the  assembly ; 
it  frequently  assures  interested  attention  at  the  beginning 
of  the  address  —  it  rests  with  the  speaker  to  maintain 
and  augment  that  interest;  it  often  reacts  upon  the 
speaker  himself,  imparting  a  keen  desire  to  speak  upon 
the  theme  as  stated,  and  this  zest  for  the  occasion  is  half 
the  victory. 

Though  it  may  be  doubted  whether  the  search  for  an 
attractive  title  should  lead  a  speaker  far  from  his  real 
subject,  here,  as  always,  the  "  golden  middle-way  "  (to 
use  a  German  idiom)  is  likely  to  prove  the  wise  course. 
Good  taste,  upon  the  one  hand,  will  reject  sensational 
and  high-sounding  titles ;  a  keen  mind,  upon  the  other, 
will  be  quick  to  discard  a  dull  and  uninteresting  form  of 
62 


THE  TITLE 


63 


statement  and  adopt  a  graceful  phrase,  a  subtle  allusion, 
a  suggestive  epithet,  or  a  striking  figure,  instead. 

It  is  easy  to  choose  between  such  titles  as :  "  Evils 
in  Modern  Charity  Administration "  and  "  Modern 
Charity  —  Wise  and  Otherwise  "  ;  or  between  "  Heredity 
the  Subject  of  Choice  "  and  "  Choosing  an  Ancestor." 

2.  A  Truthful  Title 

It  is  of  no  small  importance  that  a  title  should  not 
arouse  anticipations  which  the  discourse  is  likely  to  dis- 
appoint. It  is  fatal  to  a  speaker's  success  to  have  the 
auditors  find  that  they  were  cajoled  by  an  attractive  title 
into  expecting  a  feast  when  only  a  fast  was  prepared. 
It  is  quite  as  disappointing  to  select  a  minor  and  obscure 
phase  of  the  subject  and  announce  it  as  though  it  were 
the  dominant,  working  idea. 

3.  A  Descriptive  Title 

This  is  insisted  upon  by  some  authorities,  but  in  reality 
the  choice  in  this  respect  depends  upon  the  nature  of 
the  discourse.  Titles  of  addresses  designed  to  lead 
earnest  minds  along  highways  of  thought  upon  which 
they  have  already  entered  ,should  doubtless  be  suffi- 
ciently descriptive  to  permit  the  prospective  hearer  to 
forecast  the  theme  and  determine  as  to  its  probable 
interest  to  him.  The  neglect  of  this  simple  act  of  justice 
naturally  exasperates  disappointed  auditors.  A  well- 
known  speaker  tells  of  an  orator  who  announced  a 


64 


THE  TITLE 


lecture  upon  "The  Wine  of  the  Scriptures."  When  the 
people  assembled  they  found  that  in  one  respect  only 
was  the  lecturer  full  of  his  subject. 

A  title  which  reveals  its  aptness  only  after  the  dis- 
course has  been  heard,  is  certainly  permissible,  and  even 
greatly  to  be  commended,  when  indifferent  auditors  need 
to  be  allured  and  a  zest  of  pleasant  anticipation  supplied 
to  such  as  are  already  interested  in  either  the  speaker 
or  the  occasion.  Let  it  be  repeated,  the  object  in  view 
must  decide. 

From  the  announcement  of  such  titles  as  "  America, 
the  Apostle  of  Peace,"  "Paternalism,"  "The  Martyr  in 
History,"  "Inspired  Men,"  the  prospective  hearer  could 
forecast  the  general  tone  of  the  discourse.  But  who  could 
guess  that  "  The  Light  That  Failed  "  was  not  to  be  a 
discussion  of  Kipling's  story,  but  of  the  failure  of  Reason 
as  a  guide  during  the  French  Revolution  ?  No  more 
would  "An  Unofficial  Governor"  indicate  a  treatment 
of  the  Citizens'  Committee,  nor  "  An  Eye  for  an  Eye  " 
presage  a  discussion  of  capital  punishment.  Yet,  as 
observed  above,  both  classes  of  titles  have  their  places, 
and  the  display  of  ingenuity  and  aptness  is  often  desirable 


CHAPTER  IX 


THE  MATERIALS 

General  principles  must  be  had  from  books,  which,  however,  must 
be  brought  to  the  test  of  real  life.  —  Samuel  Johnson. 

The  learned  reflect  on  what  before  they  knew. 

—  Pope,  Essay  on  Criticism. 

We  have  seen  the  importance  of  choosing  the  subject 
for  a  discourse,  and  the  conditions  which  should  influ- 
ence that  selection  have  been  pointed  out.  We  must 
again  touch  upon  this  subject  in  considering  the  ma- 
terials for  the  discourse. 

I.   The  Relation  the  Materials  bear  to  the  Subject 

Subject  and  materials  influence  each  the  other.  This 
arises  from  the  fact  that  there  are  two  distinct  ways  in 
which  a  subject  may  be  chosen,  —  by  arbitrary  choice, 
or  by  development  from  thought  and  reading. 

(a)  Arbitrary  choice  means  the  selection  of  a  subject 
from  reasons  of  its  fitness.  It  involves  a  more  or  less 
painstaking  examination  of  a  number  of  available 
themes  with  a  view  to  the  wisest  choice.  Many  speak- 
ers do  not  hesitate  to  say  that  this  is  the  most  difficult 
part  of  the  labor  of  preparation.  Choice  is  rarely  as 
simple  a  matter  as  it  seems,  and  is  often  most  perplexing. 
65 


66 


THE  MATERIALS 


To  choose  one  subject  from  among  a  number  involves 
so  many  important  considerations  that  no  speaker  ever 
fails  to  appreciate  the  tone  of  satisfaction  in  the  voice  of 
him  who  triumphantly  announces  :  "  I  have  a  subject!" 

Do  give  me  a  subject !  How  often  the  weary  teacher 
hears  that  cry.  Then  a  list  of  themes  is  suggested, 
gone  over,  considered,  and,  in  most  instances,  rejected, 
because  the  teacher  can  know  but  imperfectly  what  is 
in  the  pupil's  mind.  To  suggest  a  subject  in  this  way 
is  like  trying  to  discover  the  street  on  which  a  lost  child 
lives,  by  naming  over  a  number  of  streets  until  one 
strikes  the  little  one's  ear  as  sounding  familiar. 

(b)  Choice  by  development  is  a  very  different  process. 
It  does  not  ask,  What  shall  I  say  ?  It  turns  the  mind 
in  upon  itself  and  asks,  What  do  I  think  ?  Thus,  the 
subject  may  be  said  to  choose  itself,  for  in  the  process 
of  thought  or  of  reading  one  theme  rises  into  promi- 
nence and  becomes  a  living  germ,  soon  to  grow  into  the 
discourse.  He  who  has  not  learned  to  reflect  is  not 
really  acquainted  with  his  own  thoughts ;  hence,  his 
thoughts  are  not  productive.  Habits  of  reading  and 
reflection  will  supply  the  speaker's  mind  with  an  abun- 
dance of  subjects  of  which  he  already  knows  something 
from  the  very  reading  and  reflection  which  gave  birth 
to  his  theme.    This  is  not  a  paradox,  but  sober  truth. 

It  must  be  already  apparent  that  the  choice  of  a  sub- 
ject by  development  savors  more  of  collection  than  of 
conscious  selection.  The  subject  "  pops  into  the  mind  " 
—  arises  spontaneously.     In  the  mind  of  the  trained 


THE  MATERIALS 


67 


thinker  it  concentrates,  by  a  process  which  we  have 
seen  to  be  induction,1  the  facts  and  truths  of  which  he 
has  been  reading  or  thinking.  This  is  most  often  a 
gradual  process.  The  scattered  ideas  may  be  but 
vaguely  connected  at  first,  but  more  and  more  they  con- 
centrate and  take  on  a  single  form,  until  at  length  one 
strong  idea  seems  to  grasp  the  soul  of  the  orator  with 
irresistible  force,  and  to  cry  aloud,  "  Arise,  I  am  your 
theme !  Henceforth,  until  you  transmute  me  by  the 
alchemy  of  your  inward  fire  into  vital  speech,  you  shall 
know  no  rest!"  Happy,  then,  is  that  orator;  for  he 
has  found  a  subject  that  grips  him. 

Of  course,  experienced  speakers  use  both  methods  of 
selection.  Even  a  reading  and  reflective  man  is  some- 
times compelled  to  hunt  for  a  theme  from  Dan  to  Beer- 
sheba,  and  then  the  task  of  gathering  materials  becomes 
a  serious  one.  But  even  in  such  a  case  there  is  a  sense 
in  which  the  selection  comes  by  development,  because 
no  careful  speaker  settles  upon  a  theme  which  does  not 
represent  at  least  some  matured  thought. 

2.  Subordination  of  Material  to  the  Object 

Oratory  has  not  only  a  subject,  but  also  an  object. 
Even  though  that  object  may  not  be  openly  revealed  to 
the  audience,  still,  like  the  theme  in  a  symphony,  it  will 
appear  and  reappear,  with  each  recurrence  gaining  vol- 
ume and  momentum,  until  at  length  its  swelling  note  of 
power  takes  possession  of  the  whole  composition,  and 
rises  to  a  climax  of  emotion  and  conviction. 

1  See  p.  12. 


68 


THE  MATERIALS 


Now  this  central,  dominating  motive  must  not  for  a 
moment  lose  its  influence  in  all  the  stages  of  the  incep- 
tion, birth,  and  life  of  an  address ;  but  especially  must 
it  control  while  the  materials  are  being  gathered.  One 
word  of  caution,  however.  Whether  the  material  be 
that  of  thought  or  of  form,  whether  it  fly  sparkling  hot 
from  the  beaten  anvil  of  your  own  brain,  or  come  scin- 
tillating from  the  treasure  house  of  a  wealthy  past, 
resolutely  discard  it  if  it  does  not  belong  necessarily  to 
your  subject,  if  it  does  not  in  some  real  way  help  to 
accomplish  your  object.  It  may  cost  you  a  twinge,  but 
it  will  save  your  audience  a  pang.  Such  a  loss  is  a 
great  gain.  Effective  speech  owes  quite  as  much  to 
what  the  orator  rejects  as  to  what  he  selects.  You  must 
not  say  everything  upon  a  subject  —  not  even  all  of  the 
important  things  —  even  if  you  could.    Life  is  too  short. 

3.  Organizing  Material  around  the  Subject 

While  considering  the  subject  of  originality  the  im- 
portance of  observation,  reading,  and  reflection  was 
pointed  out.  These  are  the  three  mental  operations 
employed  in  gathering  materials.  In  direct  proportion 
as  these  become  habits  of  mind  will  the  acquisition  of 
something  to  say  become  a  pleasure  and  not  a  punish- 
ment. 

Perhaps  enough  about  habits  of  observation  and 
reflection  has  been  said  in  Chapter  VI.  One  word 
more  must  be  set  down  regarding  reading.  If  we 
except  the  gathering  of  facts  directly  necessary,  such 


THE  MATERIALS 


69 


reading  as  is  done  for  the  preparation  of  a  discourse 
had  better  be  of  the  inspirational  type.  That  is,  of  a 
sort  which,  by  the  vigor  of  its  thought,  will  strike  fire  in 
the  spirit,  and  make  you  feci  and  think.  Glowing 
under  the  mighty  warmth,  you  will  rush  to  your  note- 
book (always  at  hand')  and  set  down  the  suggestions 
which  come  trooping  to  your  help. 

Nothing  can  be  more  hurtful  than  to  follow  the  com- 
mon advice :  Wait  until  you  have  gathered  all  your 
material  and  then  organize  it.  No!  Be  organizing  it 
all  the  while  you  are  gathering  it.  First,  formulate 
your  subject  —  which  has  already  been  compared  to  a 
germ,  containing  within  itself  the  full-blown  plant,  the 
discourse  —  in  a  single,  lucid,  compact,  vigorous  sen- 
tence, so  that  the  subject  may  be  the  whole  discourse 
condensed,  and  the  discourse  only  the  subject  expanded. 
Bear  its  impress  upon  your  soul,  sleeping  or  waking, 
and  let  it  grow.  The  results  of  your  reflection,  observa- 
tion, and  reading  will  be  its  food,  and  from  the  pleni- 
tude of  materials  with  which  your  faculties  will  come 
full-handed,  you  will  incorporate  into  this  growing  thing 
of  life  such  essential  fiber  and  beauty  as  will  give  it  at 
once  vigor  and  charm. 

4.   The  Management  of  Notes 

This  will  grow  easy  with  experience.  The  first  thing 
many  speakers  do  is  to  devote  a  separate  slip  of  paper, 
or  page  of  notebook,  to  each  major  section  of  the  dis- 
course, as,  Introduction,  etc.    Upon  each  is  set  down 


70 


THE  MATERIALS 


such  ideas  as  seem  naturally  to  belong  to  that  section. 
Even  then  it  will  be  necessary  later  to  classify  facts  and 
rearrange  ideas  still  more  accurately,  and  this  can  readily 
be  done  by  lettering  or  numbering  such  as  you  may 
have  set  down  out  of  the  desired  order,  or  even  upon 
the  wrong  sheet.  Thus  gradually  the  discourse  will 
assume  coherence,  and  without  coherence  no  discourse 
can  cleave  to  the  soul.  Thus,  too,  will  the  material 
grow  up  about  the  subject,  and  not  about  the  title.  It 
is  true,  sometimes  the  title  is  the  subject,  but  this  is  so 
rarely  the  case  as  to  justify  the  iteration  of  this  important 
maxim  :  Keep  your  subject  —  the  clear,  concentrated  ex-, 
pression  of  the  whole  truth  of  your  discourse  —  always 
as  a  thought-unit  before  you. 


CHAPTER  X 


THE  WRITING 

Write  till  your  ink  be  dry ;  and  with  your  tears  moist  it  again. 

—  Shakespeare,  Two  Gentletnen  of  Verona. 

No  general  rule  can  be  laid  down  as  to  whether  men 
should  or  should  not  write  their  discourses.  The  ques- 
tion is  involved  and  must  find  its  issue  in  practice. 
Volumes  have  been  penned  for  and  against  written 
preparation,  but,  after  all,  the  obligations  of  the  speaker 
to  the  occasion,  to  the  subject,  and  to  himself,  must  be 
the  determining  factors. 

Those  who  adopt  the  extemporaneous  method  gen- 
erally prepare  a  brief,  or  outline,  of  the  discourse,  to 
which  they  may  refer  during  delivery.  The  prepara- 
tion of  the  brief  proceeds  along  the  lines  suggested  in 
the  preceding  chapter.  The  only  directions  which  can 
here  be  given  are  that  the  brief  should  be  logical  and 
cumulative  in  its  order,  suggestive  or  "catch"  words 
and  sentences  should  be  used,  and  it  should  be  so 
clearly  set  on  paper  that  its  divisions  will  quickly  strike 
the  eye.  Type-written  material  is  more  difficult  to  read 
than  good  manuscript,  because  the  individualities  of 
7i 


72 


THE  WRITING 


personal  writing  are  not  there  to  catch  the  eye  and 
assist  the  memory.1 

But  it  is  in  the  actual  writing  that  the  personality 
and  worth  of  the  materials  must  become  apparent.  A 
mass  of  materials  is  no  more  a  discourse  than  a  pile 
of  stone  and  lumber  is  a  cathedral.  To  select,  adapt, 
fit,  unify,  and  beautify  materials  is  the  duty  alike  of 
the  builder  and  of  the  orator.  It  was  Pascal  who 
wrote :  "  In  playing  tennis  both  use  the  same  ball,  but 
one  places  it  better  than  the  other.  It  might  be  ob- 
jected that  I  use  current  words  ;  as  if  the  same  thoughts 
did  not  form  a  different  body  of  discourse  by  a  different 
arrangement."  Here,  then,  the  orator's  personality  be- 
comes the  prime  factor.  His  breadth  of  knowledge  — 
of  rhetoric,  logic,  human  nature,  and,  indeed,  of  every- 
thing—  comes  most  powerfully  into  play. 

Regarding  this  actual  writing  of  a  discourse  some 
suggestions  may  be  given.  The  work  of  organizing  the 
material  having  so  far  advanced  that  a  logical  outline 
has  been  formed  in  the  mind,  and  a  considerable  body 
of  notes  accumulated,  you  should  commit  to  paper 

i.   The  Working  Outline 

Young  speakers  may  find  this  task  both  arduous  and 
disappointing  —  faults  look  so  glaring  when  spread, 
black  on  white,  before  the  eye.    But  for  this  very 

1  Excellent  discussions  of  the  preparation  and  use  of  the  brief  will 
be  found  in  Argumentation,  Baker;  and  in  Briefs  for  Debate,  Brookings 
and  Ringwalt. 


THE  WRITING 


73 


reason  let  the  beginner  take  heart  of  courage  and 
persevere.  The  glow  of  final  writing  must  not  be 
depended  upon  to  supply  defects  of  thought  structure, 
any  more  than  an  architect  may  expect  paint  to  remedy 
the  weakness  of  a  truss.  This  outline  will  reveal  faults 
in  proportion,  weak  links  in  the  chain  of  reasoning, 
and  —  those  greatest  foes  to  forceful  oratory  —  cloudy 
ideas. 

Study  these  wise  words  of  Professor  Genung :  — 
"  But  in  truth  this  learning  to  plan  is  the  practical 
way  of  training  the  mind  into  the  habit  of  seeking 
order;  and  when  the  habit  is  fully  formed,  the  act  of 
planning,  which  at  the  beginning  seemed  arbitrary  and 
mechanical,  will  resolve  itself  into  the  discovery  of  the 
natural  movement  of  a  thought.  Planning  must  begin 
awkwardly.  It  is  well  for  the  writer  if  he  sticks  to 
the  work  until  he  is  at  home  in  it.  He  may  have  to 
work  through  a  period  more  or  less  wooden;  he  may 
be  tempted  to  odd  or  fanciful  structures  of  thought; 
he  may  at  some  stage  be  bitten  with  the  craving  for 
mere  ingenuity,  —  strange  if  he  is  not.  But  gradually 
he  will  reach  a  point  where  with  every  subject  the 
vision  of  a  plan  will  rise  before  him ;  he  will  come  to 
see  it,  not  vaguely,  but  as  an  articulated  whole;  and 
by  and  by  he  can  surrender  himself  to  the  natural 
working  of  his  mind,  because  the  artistic,  the  finely 
logical,  has  become  nature." 1 
As  to  the  manner  of  tabulating  thoughts  in  the  out- 

1  Working  Principles  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  432-433. 


74 


THE  WRITING 


line,  the  scheme  of  numerals,  letters,  and  underscoring 
followed  in  this  treatise  may  prove  suggestive. 

So  much  space  has  been  given  to  the  working  outline 
because  of  its  preeminent  place  in  the  preparation  of  all 
kinds  of  public  address.  Now,  without  entering  the 
field  of  Rhetoric  to  discuss  the  laws  of  composition, 
some  thoughts  may  be  with  profit  suggested  regarding 
the  next  step  in  composing  the  discourse. 

2.    The  First  Writing 

When  once  pen  is  set  to  paper  for  the  full  writing  of 
an  address,  the  work  of  composition  should  be  pressed 
with  fervor,  concentration,  and  rapidity.  The  audience 
should  always  be  in  the  mind's  eye,  the  subject  clearly 
before  you,  and  the  object  powerfully  dominating  every 
sentence,  so  that  each  succeeding  passage  may  become 
increasingly  an  instrument  to  transfer  your  state  of 
mind  and  feeling  to  your  auditors.  This  is  not  to  say 
that  the  object  of  the  discourse  must  always  stand  out 
consciously.  Sometimes  it  will  simply  pervade  the  mind 
while  you  write,  a  fire  in  your  bones  kindling  thought 
and  word,  a  power  which  drives  you  forward  to  expres- 
sion, with  irresistible  energy.  This  motive  must  first 
possess  you  before  it  can  possess  your  hearers.  You 
must  yield  yourself  to  its  sweep  and  swell  as  a  strong 
swimmer  yields  to  the  rising  of  the  waves ;  and  yet,  as 
does  he,  you  must  all  the  while  deftly  direct  your  own 
course. 


THE  WRITING 


75 


This  surrender  to  the  dominating  spirit  of  the  theme 
it  is  which  will  enable  you  to  write  in  a  glow,  or  at  least, 
to  write  yourself  into  a  glow.  In  such  a  mood  do  not 
strive  too  ardently  for  exactness.  For  the  time,  sacri- 
fice all  to  fire  and  movement  —  reserve  correction  for 
the  coldly  critical  hour  of 

3.   The  Final  Revision 

This  must  intervene  between  writing  and  delivery  if 
you  value  correctness.  But  it  is  a  duty  that  must  be 
approached  with  a  quite  judicial  impartiality,  the  mind 
alert  to  discover  errors  and  remorseless  to  cut  out  pas- 
sages, however  attractive,  which  are  not  absolutely 
necessary.  Before  attempting  this  revision  it  would  be 
well  for  young  speakers  to  re-read  some  digest  of  rules, 
such  as  appears  on  pages  100-108  of  this  volume.  But 
steer  clear  of  the  error  of  polishing  the  edge  off  of 
your  discourse.  "  Some  people,"  says  Cowper,  "  are 
more  nice  than  wise."  Better  that  your  style  should 
limp  than  that  your  discourse  should  lack  vitality  —  but 
good  style  and  vitality  are  one.  Do  not  revise  the  snap 
out  of  your  discourse.  Make  your  words  hit  the  mina 
with  the  impact  of  a  bullet.  Rules  should  be  your  ser- 
vants, not  your  masters. 


CHAPTER  XI 


THE  GRAND  DIVISIONS  OF  THE  DISCOURSE 

We  may  our  ends  by  our  beginnings  know. 

—  Denham,  Of  Prudence. 

All's  well  that  ends  well.  —  Shakespeare. 

From  the  days  of  the  Greek  rhetoricians  and  orators, 
certain  grand  divisions  have  been  recognized  in  the 
structure  of  a  public  discourse.  The  most  satisfactory 
partition  seems  to  be  a  fourfold  one :  (a)  introduction, 
{b)  statement,  (c)  discussion,  (d)  peroration.  Sometimes 
the  second  is  merged  with  the  third  division. 

This  general  arrangement  will  naturally  be  in  the 
mind  while  the  working  outline  is  being  formed,  so  that 
a  harmonious  progress  of  thought  may  be  preserved 
throughout. 

I.   The  Introduction**. 

Not  every  address  requires  an  introduction.  It  is 
always  foolish  "  to  preface  something  in  particular  by 
at  least  a  paragraph  of  nothing  in  particular,  bearing 
to  the  real  matter  in  hand  a  relation  not  more  inher- 

1  See  Modern  American  Oratory,  Ringwalt,  pp.  55-60. 
76 


THE  GRAND  DIVISIONS  OF  THE  DISCOURSE  77 

ently  intimate  than  that  of  the  tuning  of  violins  to  a 
symphony."  1 

When,  however,  the  introduction  is  properly  used,  it 
is  designed  to  put  the  audience  in  possession  of  such 
facts  or  ideas  as  will  secure  to  the  speaker  sympa- 
thetic attention  and  confidence.  In  rare  cases,  the 
orator  may  be  compelled  even  to  placate  hostility.2 
Hence  the  opening  words  of  a  discourse  should  be 
brief,  manly,  modest,  moderate,  frank,  and  tactful. 
Many  an  unhappy  orator  has  been  compelled  to  bring 
into  play  all  his  resources  of  power  in  order  to  win  back 
from  his  hearers  the  sympathy  and  confidence  which  he 
forfeited  while  speaking  the  introductory  sentences  — 
he  was  fortunate  in  regaining  so  much  as  a  part  of 
what  he  had  lost.  A  careful  study  of  public  assemblies 
will  yield  golden  rewards  to  him  who  would  learn  the 
way  of  approach  to  an  audience.3 

The  appended  introductions  may  well  be  studied  as 
revealing  the  practice  of  great  orators. 

Daniel  Webster's  deliberative  oration,  "  In  Reply  to 
Hayne,"  begins  with  this  beautiful  allusion  :  — 

"  When  the  mariner  has  been  tossed  for  many  days 
in  thick  weather  and  on  an  unknown  sea,  he  naturally 
avails  himself  of  the  first  pause  in  the  storm,  the  earliest 
glance  of  the  sun,  to  take  his  latitude  and  ascertain  how 
far  the  elements  have  driven  him  from  his  true  course." 

The  orator  then  applies  the  illustration  to  the  debate 
upon  which  he  has  entered. 

1  English  Composition,  Wendell,  p.  167.   2  See  p.  151.    8  See  p.  149. 


7%  THE  GRAND  DIVISIONS  OF  THE  DISCOURSE 

Wendell  Phillips  thus  begins  his  popular  lecture  on 
"  Toussaint  l'Ouverture  "  :  — 

"  I  have  been  requested  to  offer  you  a  sketch  of  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  men  of  the  last  generation,  the 
great  Toussaint  l'Ouverture.  My  sketch  is  at  once  a 
biography  and  an  argument, —  a  biography  of  a  negro 
statesman  and  soldier,  and  an  argument  in  behalf  of  the 
race  from  which  he  sprang." 

Henry  W.  Grady  began  his  great  after-dinner  oration 
on  "The  New  South  "  by  making  a  quotation  :  — 

"  '  There  was  a  South  of  slavery  and  secession  —  that 
South  is  dead.  There  is  a  South  of  union  and  freedom 
—  that  South,  thank  God,  is  living,  breathing,  growing 
every  hour.'  These  words,  delivered  from  the  immortal 
lips  of  Benjamin  H.  Hill,  at  Tammany  Hall,  in  1866, 
true  then,  and  truer  now,  I  shall  make  my  text  to- 
night." 

Judge  Jeremiah  S.  Black  prefaced  his  forensic  oration 
on  "The  Right  to  Trial  by  Jury"  with  these  words:  — 

"  May  it  please  your  Honors :  I  am  not  afraid  that 
you  will  underrate  the  importance  of  this  case.  It  con- 
cerns the  rights  of  the  whole  people.  Such  questions 
have  generally  been  settled  by  arms.  But  since  the 
beginning  of  the  world  no  battle  has  ever  been  lost  or 
won  upon  which  the  liberties  of  a  nation  were  so  dis- 
tinctly staked  as  they  are  upon  the  results  of  this  argu- 
ment. The  pen  that  writes  the  judgment  of  the  court 
will  be  mightier  for  good  or  for  evil  than  any  sword 
that  ever  was  wielded  by  mortal  arm." 


THE  GRAND  DIVISIONS  OF  THE  DISCOURSE  79 


2.   The  Statement 

The  office  of  this  division  is  to  set  forth  in  clear,  con- 
cise, exact  words  the  end  proposed  by  the  discourse,  the 
proposition  to  be  proved,  the  precise  nature  of  the  sub- 
ject, or  the  speaker's  attitude  toward  his  theme,  —  in  a 
word,  in  the  statement  the  orator  declares  his  platform 
and  defines  his  position. 

Sometimes  it  may  seem  desirable  to  reserve  the  state- 
ment for  later  announcement,  or  even  to  omit  it  entirely. 

Frequently  the  introduction  and  statement  are  deftly 
interwoven,  as  in  some  of  the  instances  quoted  under 
"  The  Introduction,"  and  occasionally  an  orator  will  use 
no  other  introduction  than  a  simple  statement,  as  did 
Webster  in  the  Dartmouth  College  Case :  — 

"The  general  question  is,  whether  the  acts  of  the 
legislature  of  New  Hampshire  of  the  twenty-seventh  of 
June  and  of  the  eighteenth  and  twenty-sixth  of  Decem- 
ber, 1816,  are  valid  and  binding  on  the  plaintiffs  without 
their  acceptance  or  assent." 

The  following,  from  Ruskin's  lecture  on  "  Turner  and 
his  Works,"  is  both  an  introduction  and  a  statement :  — 

"  My  object  this  evening  is  not  so  much  to  give  you 
any  account  of  the  works  or  the  genius  of  the  great 
painter  whom  we  have  so  lately  lost  (which  it  would  re- 
quire rather  a  year  than  an  hour  to  do),  as  to  give  you 
some  idea  of  the  position  which  his  works  hold  with 
respect  to  the  landscape  art  of  other  periods,  and  of  the 
general  condition  and  prospects  of  the  landscape  art  of 


80  THE  GRAND  DIVISIONS  OF  THE  DISCOURSE 


the  present  day.  I  will  not  lose  time  in  prefatory  re- 
marks, as  I  have  little  enough  at  any  rate,  but  will  enter 
abruptly  on  my  subject." 

Such  statements  place  the  hearer  at  once  in  the  clear, 
and  favorably  dispose  him  toward  the  frankness  of  the 
orator. 

Sometimes  speakers  include  in  the  introduction-state- 
ment an  announcement  of  the  main  heads  or  propositions 
of  the  discourse,  as  the  following  from  Prof.  Huxley  :  — 

"  The  subject  to  which  I  have  to  beg  your  attention 
during  the  ensuing  hour  is  '  The  Relation  of  Physiologi- 
cal Science  to  Other  Branches  of  Knowledge.' 

[Here  follows  a  paragraph  of  personal  explanation.] 

"  Regarding  Physiological  Science,  then,  in  its  widest 
sense,  as  the  equivalent  of  Biology,  the  Science  of  Indi- 
vidual Life,  we  have  to  consider  in  succession  :  — 

"  i.  Its  position  and  scope  as  a  branch  of  knowledge. 

"  2.  Its  value  as  a  means  of  discipline. 

"3.  Its  worth  as  practical  information. 

"  4.  At  what  period  it  may  best  be  made  a  branch  of 
education."  1 

But  this  is  too  formal  a  method  for  brief  platform 
efforts,  and  valuable  only  when  it  is  highly  necessary 
to  keep  clearly  before  the  audience  both  the  main  prop- 
osition and  the  body  of  argument  by  which  it  is  to  be 
sustained.  The  same  end  is  usually  better  attained  by 
a  rapid  summary  in  the  beginning  of  the  peroration. 

1  Huxley,  V.  p.  72,  quoted  by  J.  M.  Hart,  Handbook  of  English  Com- 
position. 


THE  GRAND  DIVISIONS  OF  THE  DISCOURSE         8 1 

3.  The  Discussion 

The  discussion  constitutes  the  body  of  the  discourse, 
hence  to  it  the  other  parts  must  be  joined  in  such  a 
way  as  to  make  smooth  connections,  and  to  preserve 
its  preeminence.  It  is  the  sine  qua  non  of  all  oratory. 
And  yet  little  valuable  advice  can  be  given  as  to  the  con- 
duct of  the  discussion, — beyond  such  suggestions  con- 
cerning literary  and  logical  forms  as  appear  elsewhere, 
—  for  the  reason  that  constantly  varying  conditions  of 
theme,  motive,  orator,  and  audience  give  birth  to  ever 
changing  ideas  in  the  discussion.  The  most  valuable 
precepts  are  those  which  urge  the  speaker  to  formulate 
his  thoughts  and  to  couch  his  language  according  to 
the  laws  of  sound  reason 1  and  of  good  English.2  As  to 
the  former,  remember  what  Butler  said  of  Hudibras  :  — 

"  He  knew  what's  what,  and  that's  as  high 
As  metaphysic  wit  can  fly." 

As  to  the  latter,  follow  the  advice  of  Francis  Bacon : 
"  Come  home  to  men's  business  and  bosoms." 

4.  The  Peroration 

The  conclusion  of  the  discourse,  brief  as  it  should  be, 
must  be  regarded  as  furnishing  an  opportunity  for  the 
most  effective  oratory.  Since  final  impressions  remain 
long  upon  the  mind,  "the  discourse  should  end  with 
words  that  deserve  distinction." 3 

1  See  p.  10.       2  See  p.  100.       8  English  Composition,  Wendell,  p.  103. 


82  THE  GRAND  DIVISIONS  OF  THE  DISCOURSE 

The  peroration  may  consist  of:  a  summary  of  the 
entire  theme,  a  recapitulation  of  the  main  points  ad- 
vanced, an  enforcement  of  the  central  truth,  a  call  to 
action,  an  appeal  to  the  emotions,  or  a  combination 
of  several  or  all  of  these  methods.  Elevated  style  and 
an  impassioned  appeal  usually  characterize  the  perora- 
tion in  demonstrative  oratory. 

Though  the  concluding  sentences  should  be  in  them- 
selves a  climax  to  the  whole  discourse,  yet  it  is  rarely 
wise  to  end  the  effort  the  very  instant  when  emotion 
has  reached  the  highest  pitch.  Rather  should  there 
be  a  moment  of  gentle  subsidence  from  the  lofty  flight 
of  impassioned  utterance,  so  as  to  guard  against  a  re- 
vulsion of  feeling  upon  the  part  of  the  audience. 

The  study  of  good  models  will  amply  reward  all 
who  would  cultivate  the  power  of  ending  a  discourse 
effectively. 

Wendell  Phillips  concludes  his  speech  on  "  A  Metro- 
politan Police,"  with  these  words  :  — 

"  Agitate,  and  we  shall  yet  see  the  laws  of  Massachu- 
setts rule  even  in  Boston." 

Edward  Everett  ends  his  oration  on  "  Temperance  " 
by  generalizing  this  principle  of  action  :  — 

"  Let  us,  sir,  mingle  discretion  with  our  zeal ;  and 
the  greater  will  be  our  success  in  this  pure  and  noble 
enterprise." 

The  same  great  orator  employs  this  metaphor  as 
the  peroration  for  his  oration  on  "  The  Importance  of 
Scientific  Knowledge  "  :  — 


THE  GRAND  DIVISIONS  OF  THE  DISCOURSE  83 

"  When  an  acorn  falls  upon  an  unfavorable  spot,  and 
decays  there,  we  know  the  extent  of  the  loss  —  it  is 
that  of  a  tree  like  the  one  from  which  it  fell ;  but  when 
the  mind  of  a  rational  being,  for  want  of  culture,  is  lost 
to  the  great  ends  for  which  it  was  created,  it  is  a  loss 
which  no  man  can  measure,  either  for  time  or  for 
eternity." 

A  fine  example  of  impassioned  peroration  is  found  in 
the  closing  words  of  Ruskin's  lecture  on  "  The  Deteri- 
orative Power  of  Conventional  Art  over  Nations." 

"  Make,  then,  your  choice  boldly  and  consciously,  for 
one  way  or  other  it  must  be  made.  On  the  dark  and 
dangerous  side  are  set  the  pride  which  delights  in  self- 
contemplation —  the  indolence  which  rests  in  unques- 
tioned forms , —  the  ignorance  that  despises  what  is 
fairest  among  God's  creatures,  and  the  dullness  that 
denies  what  is  marvelous  in  his  working ;  there  is  a 
life  of  monotony  for  your  own  souls,  and  of  misguiding 
for  those  of  others.  And,  on  the  other  side,  is  open 
to  your  choice  the  life  of  the  crowned  spirit,  moving 
as  a  light  in  creation  —  discovering  always  —  illuminat- 
ing always,  gaining  every  hour  in  strength,  yet  bowed 
down  every  hour  into  deeper  humility;  sure  of  being 
right  in  its  aim,  sure  of  being  irresistible  in  its  prog- 
ress; happy  in  what  it  has  securely  done  —  happier 
in  what,  day  by  day,  it  may  as  securely  hope ;  happiest 
at  the  close  of  life,  when  the  right  hand  begins  to  for- 
get its  cunning,  to  remember,  that  there  was  never  a 
touch  of  the  chisel  or  the  pencil  it  wielded,  but  has 


84  THE  GRAND  DIVISIONS  OF  THE  DISCOURSE 

added  to  the  knowledge  and  quickened  the  happiness 
of  mankind." 

e    The  Entire  Discourse 

It  is  quite  possible  so  perfectly  to  develop  these 
grand  divisions  of  the  discourse  singly,  as  to  sacrifice 
the  effect  of  the  whole  to  the  perfection  of  the  parts  — ■ 
a  fatal  blunder  indeed.  In  their  true  relation  each 
exists  for  the  other,  and  all  exist  for  the  sake  of  the 
whole.1 

The  ideal  discourse  may  be  compared  to  an  oval. 
The  introductory  statement  presents  the  subject  as  a 
thought  unit.  Throughout  the  discussion  this  subject 
is  expanded  and  amplified.  In  the  peroration  it  is 
again  compacted,  and  at  length  penetrates  the  minds 
of  the  auditors  as  a  single  impression. 

1  See  p.  108,  Section  VI. 


CHAPTER  XII 


HOW  TO  ACQUIRE  AN  ORATORICAL  VOCABULARY 
The  knowledge  of  words  is  the  gate  of  scholarship.  — Wilson. 

It  is  not  commonly  remembered  that  the  term  "  vo- 
cabulary" has  a  special  as  well  as  a  general  meaning. 
All  vocabularies  are  indeed  based  upon  the  common 
every-day  words  of  the  language,  but  each  special  vo- 
cabulary possesses  a  number  of  words  of  peculiar  value 
for  its  own  objects.  Such  words  may  be  used  in  other 
vocabularies  also,  but  the  fact  that  they  are  suited  to  a 
unique  order  of  expression  marks  them  as  of  special 
value  to  a  particular  craft  or  calling. 

In  this  respect  the  orator  differs  not  at  all  from  the 
poet,  the  novelist,  the  scientist,  the  traveler.  He  must 
add  to  his  every-day  stock,  words  of  value  for  the  pub- 
lic presentation  of  thought.  A  study  of  the  discourses 
of  effective  orators  discloses  the  fact  that  they  have  a 
fondness  for  words  signifying  power,  largeness,  speed, 
action,  color,  light,  and  all  their  opposites.  They  fre- 
quently employ  words  expressive  of  the  various  emo- 
tions. Descriptive  words,  adjectives  used  in  fresh 
relations  with  nouns,  and  apt  epithets,  are  freely  em- 
ployed. Indeed,  the  nature  of  public  speech  permits 
the  use  of  mildly  exaggerated  words  which,  by  the  time 
85 


86      HOW  TO  ACQUIRE  AN  ORATORICAL  VOCABULARY 


they  have  reached  the  hearer's  judgment,  will  leave 
only  a  just  impression. 

No  one  truly  possesses  a  word  until  he  knows  its 
exact  meaning,  understands  its  relation  to  other  words, 
and  has  it  ready  for  use. 

How  can  this  be  accomplished  ? 

Determination  and  method  will  do  wonders.  The 
student  must  apply  the  former —  the  author  can  only 
suggest  the  latter. 

I.   Gather  Words  from  the  Written  and  Spoken  Dis- 
courses of  Effective  Speakers 

In  studying  oratorical  words  as  well  as  oratorical 
forms,  the  true  way  is  to  note  the  usages  of  great  ora- 
tors. The  careful  analysis  of  one  great  oration  will 
do  you  more  good  than  chapters  of  theory. 

In  studying  words,  remember  that  the  notebook  habit 
is  altogether  admirable.  The  author  has  in  mind  a 
speaker  of  superior  attainments  who  acquired  his  vo- 
cabulary by  noting  all  new  words  he  heard  or  read. 
These  he  mastered  and  put  into  use.  Soon  his  vocabu- 
lary became  large,  varied,  and  accurate.  Use  a  new 
word  accurately  five  times  and  it  is  yours. 

2.  Form  the  Dictionary  Habit 

Do  not  be  content  with  your  general  knowledge  of 
a  word.  Press  your  inquiry  until  you  have  grasped 
its  individual  shade  of  meaning  and  usage.  Fluency 


HOW  TO  ACQUIRE  AN  ORATORICAL  VOCABULARY  87 

may  become  despicable,  but  accuracy  never.  No  dic- 
tionary is  perfect,  still,  any  standard  lexicon  contains 
the  crystallized  usage  of  intellectual  giants.  No  one 
who  would  discourse  effectively  dare  despise  its  defini- 
tions and  discriminations. 

3.  Seek  Diligently  for  just  the  Right  Word 

This  involves  a  careful  study  of  synonyms  and  an- 
tonyms. Fortunately,  there  is  no  lack  of  excellent 
manuals  for  the  guidance  of  students  and  for  ready 
reference. 

"  I  am  growing  so  peevish  about  my  writing,"  says 
Flaubert.  "  I  am  like  a  man  whose  ear  is  true,  but 
who  plays  falsely  on  the  violin :  his  fingers  refuse  to 
reproduce  precisely  those  sounds  of  which  he  has  the 
inward  sense.  Then  the  tears  come  rolling  down  from 
the  poor  scraper's  eyes  and  the  bow  falls  from  his  hand." 1 

The  same  brilliant  Frenchman  sent  this  sound  advice 
to  Guy  de  Maupassant :  "  Whatever  may  be  the  thing 
which  one  wishes  to  say,  there  is  but  one  word  for  ex- 
pressing it,  only  one  verb  to  animate  it,  only  one  adjec- 
tive to  qualify  it.  It  is  essential  to  search  for  this 
word,  for  this  verb,  for  this  adjective,  until  they  are 
discovered,  and  to  be  satisfied  with  nothing  else." 

Walter  Savage  Landor  once  wrote,  "  I  hate  false 
words,  and  seek  with  care,  difficulty,  and  moroseness 
those  that  fit  the  thing."    So  did  Sentimental  Tommy, 


1  Appreciations,  Pater,  p.  30. 


88      HOW  TO  ACQUIRE  AN  ORATORICAL  VOCABULARY 


as  related  by  James  M.  Barrie  in  his  admirable  novel 
bearing  this  sobriquet  as  a  title.  No  wonder  T.  San- 
dys became  an  author  and  a  lion ! 

Tommy,  with  another  lad,  is  writing  an  essay  on  "  A 
Day  in  Church,"  in  competition  for  a  university  scholar- 
ship. He  gets  on  finely  until  he  pauses  for  lack  of  a 
word.  For  nearly  an  hour  he  searches  for  this  elusive 
thing,  until  suddenly  he  is  told  that  the  allotted  time  is 
up,  and  he  has  lost !    Barrie  may  tell  the  rest :  — 

Essay!  It  was  no  more  an  essay  than  a  twig  is  a 
tree,  for  the  gowk  had  stuck  in  the  middle  of  his  sec- 
ond page.  Yes,  stuck  is  the  right  expression,  as  his 
chagrined  teacher  had  to  admit  when  the  boy  was 
cross-examined.  He  had  not  been  "  up  to  some  of  his 
tricks  "  ;  he  had  stuck,  and  his  explanations,  as  you  will 
admit,  merely  emphasized  his  incapacity. 

He  had  brought  himself  to  public  scorn  for  lack  of 
a  word.  What  word  ?  they  asked  testily ;  but  even 
now  he  could  not  tell.  He  had  wanted  a  Scotch  word 
that  would  signify  how  many  people  were  in  church, 
and  it  was  on  the  tip  of  his  tongue,  but  would  come 
no  farther.  Puckle  was  nearly  the  word,  but  it  did  not 
mean  so  many  people  as  he  meant.  The  hour  had 
gone  by  just  like  winking ;  he  had  forgotten  all  about 
time  while  searching  his  mind  for  the  word. 

******* 

The  other  five  [examiners]  were  furious.  ..."  You 
little  tattie  doolie,"  Cathro  roared,  "were  there  not  a 


HOW  TO  ACQUIRE  AN  ORATORICAL  VOCABULARY  89 

dozen  words  to  wile  from  if  you  had  an  ill-will  to 
puckle?    What  ailed  you  at  manzy,  or — " 

"  I  thought  of  manzy,"  replied  Tommy,  wofully,  for 
he  was  ashamed  of  himself,  "but  —  but  a  manzy's  a 
swarm.  It  would  mean  that  the  folk  in  the  kirk  were 
buzzing  thegither  like  bees,  instead  of  sitting  still." 

"  Even  if  it  does  mean  that,"  said  Mr.  Duthie,  with 
impatience,  "  what  was  the  need  of  being  so  particular  ? 
Surely  the  art  of  essay-writing  consists  in  using  the 
first  word  that  comes  and  hurrying  on." 

"  That's  how  I  did,"  said  the  proud  McLauchlan 
[Tommy's  successful  competitor].  .  .  . 

"  I  see,"  interposed  Mr.  Gloag,  "  that  McLauchlan 
speaks  of  there  being  a  mask  of  people  in  the  church. 
Mask  is  a  fine  Scotch  word." 

"  I  thought  of  mask,"  whimpered  Tommy,  "  but  that 
would  mean  the  kirk  was  crammed,  and  I  just  meant  it 
to  be  middling  full." 

"Flow  would  have  done,"  suggested  Mr.  Lorrimer. 

"  Flow's  but  a  handful,"  said  Tommy. 

"  Curran,  then,  you  jackanapes  !  " 

"  Curran's  no  enough." 

Mr.  Lorrimer  flung  up  his  hands  in  despair. 

"  I  wanted  something  between  curran  and  mask," 
said  Tommy,  doggedly,  yet  almost  at  the  crying. 

Mr.  Ogilvy,  who  had  been  hiding  his  admiration  with 
difficulty,  spread  a  net  for  him.  "  You  said  you  wanted 
a  word  that  meant  middling  full.  Well,  why  did  you 
not  say  middling  full  —  or  fell  mask  ? " 


90      HOW  TO  ACQUIRE  AN  ORATORICAL  VOCABULARY 

"Yes,  why  not?"  demanded  the  ministers,  uncon* 
sciously  caught  in  the  net. 

"  I  wanted  one  word,"  replied  Tommy,  unconsciously 
avoiding  it. 

"You  jewel!"  muttered  Mr.  Ogilvy  under  his  breath, 
but  Mr.  Cathro  would  have  banged  the  boy's  head  had 
not  the  ministers  interfered. 

"  It  is  so  easy,  too,  to  find  the  right  word,"  said  Mr. 
Gloag. 

"It's  no;  it's  as  difficult  as  to  hit  a  squirrel,"  cried 
Tommy,  and  again  Mr.  Ogilvy  nodded  approval. 
******* 

And  then  an  odd  thing  happened.  As  they  were 
preparing  to  leave  the  school  [Cathro  having  previously 
run  Tommy  out  by  the  neck],  the  door  opened  a  little 
and  there  appeared  in  the  aperture  the  face  of  Tommy, 
tear-stained  but  excited.  "  I  ken  the  word  now,"  he 
cried,  "  it  came  to  me  a'  at  once ;  it  is  hantle !  " 

Mr.  Ogilvy  .  .  .  said  in  an  ecstasy  to  himself,  "  He 
had  to  think  of  it  till  he  got  it  —  and  he  got  it.  The 
laddie  is  a  genius  !  " 

4.  Discuss  Words  with  Those  who  Know  Them 

Since  public  discourse  closely  follows  the  diction  of 
every-day  speech,  many  useful  words  may  be  acquired 
in  conversation  with  cultivated  men.  And  when  such 
communication  takes  the  form  of  disputation  as  to  the 
meanings  and  usages  of  words,  it  must  prove  doubly 
valuable. 


HOW  TO  ACQUIRE  AN  ORATORICAL  VOCABULARY      9 1 

5.  Do  not  Overlook  the  Value  of  Translating  Languages 

6.  Study  Word  Derivations 

A  notable  sermon  on  "Joy,"  preached  by  the  Rev. 
Dr.  Maltbie  D.  Babcock,  grew  out  of  the  orator's  keen 
discriminations  between  the  word  joy  and  such  kindred 
words  as  pleasure,  happiness,  amusement,  and  recrea- 
tion. A  flood  of  light  may  stream  over  a  subject  when 
the  origin  of  a  word  is  disclosed.  A  prefix  or  a  suffix 
may  essentially  change  the  force  of  the  stem,  as  in 
master-ftil  and  master-ly,  contempt-ible  and  contempt- 
uous, envi-ous  and  envi-able.  Thus  to  study  words  in 
groups,  according  to  their  stems,  prefixes,  and  suffixes, 
is  to  gain  a  mastery  over  their  shades  of  meaning,  and 
introduce  us  to  other  related  words. 

7.  Do  not  Favor  one  Set  or  Kind  of  Words  more  than 
Another 

"  Sixty  years  and  more  ago,  Lord  Brougham,  address- 
ing the  students  of  the  University  of  Glasgow,  laid 
down  the  rule  that  the  native  (Anglo-Saxon)  part  of 
our  vocabulary  was  to  be  favored  at  the  expense  of  that 
other  part  which  has  come  from  the  Latin  and  Greek. 
The  rule  was  an  impossible  one,  and  Lord  Brougham 
himself  never  tried  seriously  to  observe  it ;  nor,  in  truth, 
has  any  great  writer  made  the  attempt.  Not  only  is 
our  language  highly  composite,  but  the  component 


92      HOW  TO  ACQUIRE  AN  ORATORICAL  VOCABULARY 


words  have,  in  De  Quincey's  phrase,  '  happily  coa- 
lesced.' It  is  easy  to  jest  at  words  in  -osity  and  -ation, 
as  '  dictionary '  words,  and  the  like.  But  even  Lord 
Brougham  would  have  found  it  difficult  to  dispense 
with  pomposity  and  imagination." x 

1  Handbook  of  English  Composition,  Hart,  p.  341. 


CHAPTER  XIII 


STYLE  IN  PUBLIC  DISCOURSE 

If  I  am  ever  obscure  in  my  expression,  do  not  fancy  that  there* 
fore  I  am  deep.  If  I  were  really  deep,  all  the  world  would  under- 
stand. —  Charles  Kingsley. 

Clear  writers,  like  clear  fountains,  do  not  seem  so  deep  as  they 
are. — Walter  Savage  Landor. 

In  the  last  chapter  we  saw  the  value  of  a  large  and 
accurate  oratorical  vocabulary.  We  are  now  to  note  by 
what  means  individual  words  are  to  become  fused  in  the 
alembic  of  the  soul  and  become  a  power  in  speech. 

Walter  Pater  once  said  that  a  man  should  have  "  a 
vocabulary  faithful  to  the  coloring  of  his  own  spirit " ; 
and  Buff  on  wrote,  "  Style  is  the  man  himself."  Both 
of  these  maxims  recognize  a  truth  fundamental  to  our 
theme  — 

I.    Personality  must  Dominate  the  Style  in  Public 
Discourse 

It  is  true  that  the  qualities  of  Purity,  Propriety,  and 
Precision  in  diction,  and  of  Clearness,  Unity,  Emphasis, 
Force,  Harmony,  and  Vitality,  in  general  composition, 
are  of  primary  importance 1  in  spoken  discourse  as  well 

1  See  pp.  100-108. 
93 


94 


STYLE  IN  PUBLIC  DISCOURSE 


as  in  written ;  it  is  furthermore  true,  as  will  presently 
J  appear,  that  other  facts  also  help  determine  the  style  of 
the  speaker ;  but  personality  must  pervade  and  domi- 
nate them  all. 

"  A  poet  is  born ;  an  orator,  made,"  said  Horace. 
This  is  only  half  true.  The  orator  must  possess  certain 
native  gifts  which  are  susceptible  to  culture,  and  per- 
sonality is  one  of  these.  Expression  grows  out  of  per- 
sonality ;  hence  the  former  must  receive  tone  and  spirit 
from  the  latter.  When  a  man  is  surcharged  with  life, 
he  can't  help  doing  and  saying  things ;  if  he  did  not, 
he  would  burst. 

Thus  we  see  that  all  the  qualities  and  acquirements 
of  manhood  are  influential  in  forming  the  speaker's 
style.  He  may  simulate  for  a  while  the  possession  of 
qualities  not  his  own,  he  may  repress  his  real  nature 
upon  occasions,  he  may  even  act  skillfully  in  delivering 
the  words  of  others ;  but  in  the  long  run  personality  will 
color  the  matter  as  well  as  the  style  of  his  discourse. 

According  to  the  personality  of  the  man  and  the 
"  quality  of  the  information  in  the  treasure  house  of  the 
understanding,  will  be  the  style  —  scant  or  plentiful  in 
words,  clear  or  confused  in  expression,  vivacious  or 
dull,  yielding  ideas  leaden  or  golden,  gems  of  paste,  or 
diamonds  rich  and  rare."  1 

In  view  of  this  truth,  let  it  be  observed  that  modesty, 
sincerity,  naturalness,  earnestness,  and  all  other  per- 
sonal characteristics,  as  revealed  in  style,  cannot  be 

1  Public  Speaking  and  Debate,  Holyoake,  p.  222. 


STYLE  IN  PUBLIC  DISCOURSE 


95 


taught  by  rhetoricians,  but  must  be  the  outward  expres- 
sion of  an  inward  character.  The  way  to  have  them  is 
to  build  them  into  the  life.  Then,  and  then  only,  can 
they  find  true  expression. 

The  structure  and  the  handling  of  language  are  in- 
deed subjects  of  instruction  ;  but  only  as  instruments  to 
convey  thought,  feeling,  and  will,  are  they  part  of  the 
orator's  equipment.  His  real  power  is  from  within. 
Personality  is  the  dynamic  of  oratory.  To  cultivate  it 
is  the  work  of  a  life.  First  impression,  then  expres- 
sion ;  first  be,  then  speak ;  first  will,  then  command. 
Do  you  suppose  that  anything  other  than  the  high 
plane  of  thought  on  which  Gladstone  constantly  moved 
could  have  made  possible  and  inevitable  the  lofty  style 
which  clothed  his  sentiments  ?  Could  aught  but  a 
spirit  tremendously  in  earnest  have  given  voice  to  such 
fervid  periods  as  burned"  in  the  eloquence  of  Wendell 
Phillips  ?  Could  a  heart  less  bound  up  in  the  interests 
of  men  and  causes  that  he  loved  have  inspired  such 
bursts  of  moving  appeal  as  gushed  from  the  lips  of 
Daniel  Webster  ? 

It  is  such  full  natures  as  these  that  give  to  their  hear- 
ers the  strong  sense  of  power  in  reserve,  and  cause 
them  to  hang  upon  each  wor3  as  it  falls  from  the 
orator's  lips  as  though  within  its  compass  were  enfolded 
momentous  issues.  When  such  dynamic  minds  attempt 
utterance,  quietness  is  not  mistaken  for  dullness,  nor 
gentleness  for  timidity.  Theirs  is  not  the  gentleness  of 
a  limpid  brook,  which  moves  quietly  because  it  has  no 


96 


STYLE  IN  PUBLIC  DISCOURSE 


power  to  rage ;  it  is  rather  the  sublime  self-repression 
of  the  ocean  when  in  placid  mood.  At  any  moment 
^  those  gentle  ripples  may  swell  to  mountains  of  irresisti- 
ble power ;  and  when  once  the  rising  tide  of  emotion 
breaks  bounds  within  the  orator's  bosom,  a  wave  of  elo- 
quence will  sweep  the  sympathies  of  his  audience  along 
upon  its  towering  crest. 

This  quality  of  individuality  discloses  itself  in  a  score 
of  ways,  but  nowhere  more  evidently  than  in  style. 
Illustrations  may  be  drawn  from  dress,  from  manners, 
from  employments,  from  all  life.  Just  so  the  orator 
will  express  his  personality  in  his  style ;  that  is,  his 
personality  will  so  temper  his  use  of  the  general  qualities 
of  style,  will  dictate  their  use  in  such  combinations,  as 
to  produce  his  own  style.  To  be  sure,  this  development 
of  a  markedly  personal  style  is  to  be  looked  for  only  in 
exceptional  speakers  ;  yet  it  is  interesting  to  note  how 
such  individuality  begins  to  show  itself  in  a  young 
speaker.  A  man  of  petulant  nature  will  naturally  adopt 
a  short  and  crisp  manner  of  expression ;  he  who  is  easy- 
going and  mild  will  reflect  this  temper  in  his  speech  ; 
while  the  flustry,  blustry  fellow  will  lean  to  a  style 
florid  and  wordy.  It  is  precisely  here  that  the  value  of 
rhetorical  training  appears,  in  that  it  gives  the  speaker 
command  of  such  variety  of  expression  that  he  may 
accomplish  his  end  without  either  burying  his  personal- 
ity or  keeping  it  unpleasantly  in  the  foreground.  When 
the  orator  is  at  his  best,  all  his  words  will  be  an  adequate 
and  sincere  utterance  of  his  best  self. 


STYLE  IN  PUBLIC  DISCOURSE  97 

2.   The  Style  of  Public  Discourse  should  be  more  Free 
than  that  of  Written  Discourse 

The  learned  Dr.  Gilchrist  once  wrote  :  "  What  one  of 
the  ancient  philosophers  said  of  laws  may  be  truly  said 
of  rhetorical  rules ;  they  are  like  cobwebs  which  entan- 
gle the  weak,  but  which  the  strong  break  through.  The 
first  rule  of  good  composition  is,  that  the  composer  be 
free  and  bold." 

Truly,  there  are  times  when,  as  Pope  declared,  "  A 
little  knowledge  is  a  dangerous  thing."  So  long  as 
the  rules  of  rhetoric  and  logic  are  used  as  crutches, 
they  cannot  be  shouldered  and  wielded  as  weapons. 
It  is  only  when  the  technicalities  of  rule  have  been 
mastered  and  have  become  a  sort  of  second  nature 
that  the  writer  or  speaker  moves  with  freedom  and 
individuality.  Be  so  familiar  with  the  rules  of  dis- 
course that  they  may  be  helps  and  not  hindrances. 
Do  not  write  by  rule,  but  learn  by  rules  how  to  write 
without  rules. 

"Prose  is  the  literary  evolution  of  conversation."1 
Therefore,  the  most  natural  and  free  public  speech  is 
conversational.  But  why  emphasize  this  point  here 
rather  than  in  connection  with  delivery  ?  Because  there 
are  so  many  like  Tom  Birch,  of  whom  Dr.  Johnson 
said,  "He  is  as  brisk  as  a  bee  in  conversation ;  but  no 
sooner  does  he  take  a  pen  in  his  hand  than  it  becomes 

1  English  Prose,  Earle,  p.  in. 


98 


STYLE  IN  PUBLIC  DISCOURSE 


a  torpedo  to  him,  and  benumbs  all  his  faculties."  To 
be  able  -to  write  as  though  speaking  to  an  audience  is 
the  highest  attainment  in  preparation.  In  order  to 
attain  to  this  freedom  it  will  be  well  to  keep  in  mind 
several  things :  — 

(a)  You  are  delivering  a  message  ;  be  direct.  —  Presi- 
dent Hyde,  of  Bowdoin  College,  relates  how  that  a 
clergyman  without  a  charge  once  came  to  the  Rev.  Dr. 
Joseph  Parker,  and  asked  to  be  helped  to  a  parish. 
The  great  London  preacher  at  once  set  his  visitor  to 
preaching  a  sermon.  In  the  midst  of  its  delivery 
Dr.  Parker  interrupted  with  the  pertinent  comment, 
"  Now  I  know  why  yoiu,  do  not  have  a  parish,  —  you 
are  speaking  to  get  something  off  your  mind,  not  into 
mine." 

(b)  Use  the  figures  and  idioms  of  every-day  life. — 
Don't  go  on  stilts.    Come  down. 

(c)  Read  aloud  model  orations  to  catch  their  direct, 
free  style. 

(d)  Read  aloud  your  own  written  preparation  to  see  if 
it  "speaks  well" 

(e)  Use  straight-forward  declarative  sentences  freely.  — 
Avoid  "the  grand  style." 

(f)  Hammer  home  important  points  by  judicious  repe- 
tition  and  summary. 

(g)  Dont  speak  over  the  heads  of  your  audience.  —  Be 
intelligible  and  pointed. 

(h)  Never  use  the  "editorial  we"  and  seldom  say  "/." 


STYLE  IN  PUBLIC  DISCOURSE 


99 


3.  The  General  Style  of  Public  Discourse  must  be  de- 
termined by  the  Limitations  of  Speaker,  Occasion, 
and  Theme 

As  the  speaker  puts  to  himself  this  three-fold  propo- 
sition, it  will  be  seen  that  —  the  limitations  of  the  speaker 
excepted,  for  of  them  he  himself  will  be  the  best  judge  — 
the  problem  of  style  will  resolve  itself  into  a  question 
of  occasion  and  theme.  But  these  considerations  deter- 
mine the  kind  of  discourse,  therefore  an  examination  of 
the  subjoined  outline  will  enable  the  speaker  to  suit  the 
style  of  preparation  to  the  kind  of  discourse  he  is  to 
deliver.  Further  than  this  bare  suggestion  no  direc- 
tions will  be  attempted. 


Public 
Discourse 


Forms 


Description 
Narration 
Exposition 
Argumentation 
[  Persuasion 

Impromptu  Speeches 
Extemporaneous  Addresses ] 
Declamations 


Kinds 


Orations 5 


Forensic 

Deliberative 

Sacred 

Demonstrative 


Occasional 

Eulogy 
and 
Invective 

(  Popular 


Anniver- 
sary 
Dedicatory 
Commemo- 
rative 

College 

Lectures 

Special 


*  The  oration  is  sometimes  extemporaneous. 


CHAPTER  XIV 


DIGEST  OF  RHETORICAL  RULES  AS  APPLIED  TO  PUBLIC 
DISCOURSE 

Expression  is  the  dress  of  thought,  and  still 
Appears  more  decent,  as  more  suitable; 
A  vile  conceit  in  pompous  words  express'd, 
Is  like  a  clown  in  regal  purple  dress'd. 

—  Pope,  Essay  on  Criticism. 

I.  Diction  —  The  Right  Use  of  Right  Words 

Use  neither  obsolete  words,  nor  words 

too  new  to  be  standard. 
Avoid  the  use  of  localisms  and  tech- 
nical terms  in  a  popular  address. 
Do  not  employ  a  foreign  word  until 

it  has  become  naturalized. 
Follow  the  usage  of  the  best  speakers 
by  refraining  from  slang,  and  from 
words  not  properly  in  the  language. 

Be  too  alert  to  use  the  wrong  word 
even  if  it  sounds  like  the  right  one. 
Do  not  use  a  word  in  more  than  one 
sense  without  clearly  indicating  it. 
When  in  doubt,  consult  the  dictionary, 
ioo 


{a)  Pure 
Words 


{b)  Proper 
Words 


DIGEST  OF  RHETORICAL  RULES 


IOI 


(c)  Precise 
Words 


L  9- 


Among  synonyms,  use  the  word 
which  conveys  exactly  your  shade 
of  meaning,  both  as  to  kind  and 
as  to  degree. 

Simple  words  are  most  effective. 


II.  Sentences 

'  10.  Short  sentences  should  be  used  for 
vigor,  emphasis,  rapid  movement, 
and  impassioned  discourse. 

11.  Too  many  short  sentences  produce 

a  disconnected,  jerky  effect. 

12.  For  detail,  smoothness,  and  rhythm, 

use  long  sentences. 

13.  Use  care  lest  long  sentences  con- 

fuse the  meaning. 

14.  Use  balanced  sentences  to  bring 

out  contrasts. 

15.  To  sustain  interest,  use  periodic 

sentences. 

16.  For  easy  and  informal  discourse 

use  loose  sentences. 

17.  By  no  means  confine  yourself  to 

any  one  kind,  but  learn  to  use 
all  varieties  of  sentences. 


102 


DIGEST  OF  RHETORICAL  RULES 


III.  Essential  Properties  of  Style 


(a)  Grammatical 


Correctness 


{b)  Clearness 


1 8.  "Confine  the  possessive  mostly 

to  persons."  —  Genung. 

19.  Use  the  subjunctive  only  when 

the  condition  is  doubtful. 

20.  Use  shall  and  will  with  care. 

21.  "Do  not  let  intervening  words 

disturb  the  agreement  of  verb 
and  subject."  —  Genung. 

22.  Never  place  an  adverb  between 

the  parts  of  an  infinitive. 

23.  Let  the  sense  rather  than  gram- 

mar govern  your  treatment  of 
collectives. 

24.  Place  adverbs  and  adverb  modi- 

fiers close  to  the  words  they 
modify. 

25.  Place  a  restrictive  modifier  where 

there  can  be  no  doubt  as  to 
what  it  modifies. 

26.  "  Between  a  word  and  its  modi- 

fier do  not  put  anything  that 
can  steal  the  modification." 
—  Genung. 

27.  Be   certain   that  each  relative 

pronoun  points  clearly  to  its 
antecedent. 


DIGEST  OF  RHETORICAL  RULES 


103 


'28.  A  clause  should  not  be  used  as 
the  antecedent  of  a  relative  pro- 
noun. 

29.  Let  there  be  no  doubt  as  to  which, 

of  two  or  more  nouns  of  like 
number  and  gender,  a  personal 
pronoun  relates. 

30.  Omit  no  parts  not  evidently  im- 

plied (understood). 


31.  During  the  course  of  a  sentence 

do  not  change  its  subject  or 
shift  the  standpoint  of  thought. 

32.  The  sentence  should  be  completely 

dominated  by  one  main  thought, 
and  upon  it  directly  should  each 
subordinate  thought  depend. 

33.  Do  not  crowd  together  conflicting 

ideas,  nor  thoughts  not  naturally 
related. 

34.  Do  not  attach  relative  clauses  to 

other  clauses  which  are  them- 
selves dependent. 

35.  A  too  free  use  of  parenthetical  ex- 

pressions tends  to  switch  thought 
away  from  the  subject. 

36.  Do  not  attach  a  supplementary  ex- 

pression to  the  end  of  an  already 
complete  sentence. 


io4 


DIGEST  OF  RHETORICAL  RULES 


IV.  Special  Properties  of  Style 

'  37.  For  emphasis,  accord  a  conspicuous 
place  in  the  sentence  to  the  main 
idea,  using  the  other  parts  as  a 
background. 

38.  Invert  the  position  of  the  modifier 

to  give  it  emphasis. 

39.  An   inverted    sentence-order  will 


principal  idea. 

40.  By  putting  subsidiary  matter  first, 

the  logical  subject  will  be  em- 
phasized (periodic  sentence). 

41.  Repetition,  both  of  words  and  of 

sentence-forms,  adds  emphasis. 

42.  Use  climax. 

'43.  Plain,  specific,  short,  and  strong 
words  give  vigor  to  sentences. 

44.  Avoid  useless  repetition  of  ideas, 

and  the  use  of  unnecessary  words. 

45.  "  End  with  words  that  deserve  dis- 


46.  For  weighty  force,  cut  out  modifiers, 

condense  clauses  and  phrases  to 
equivalent  words,  and  choose  the 
most  emphatically  direct  words. 

47.  Cut  out  superfluous  connectives. 


(a)  Emphasis* 


emphasize  the  logical  subject,  or 


(b)  Force 


tinction."  — Wendell. 


DIGEST  OF  RHETORICAL  RULES 


105 


(c)  Harmony 


f48. 

49. 

50. 
5i- 


52. 


53- 

54- 
55- 

56. 


57- 


58. 


59- 


To  induce  harmony  adapt  the  sound 

of  words  to  the  sense. 
Select  synonymous  words  when  it 

is  necessary  to  repeat  ideas. 
Use  alliteration  sparingly. 
Arrange  your  material  with  an  ear 

to  the  prevalence  of  harmonious 

sounds. 

To  give  vitality  to  discourse,  use 
direct,  idiomatic  English. 

Distinguish  between  an  idiom  and 
a  worn-out  stock  expression. 

Avoid  the  use  of  poetic  forms. 

Beware  the  pitfall  of  a  stilted  and 
exaggerated  style. 

Rapid  movement  is  secured  by 
suppressing  details,  and  using 
epithet  to  portray  the  character- 
istic points. 

For  condensed  and  vivid  descrip- 
tion, use  simile,  metaphor,  allu- 
sion, and  personification. 

Interrogation,  exclamation,  and  hy- 
perbole are  used  for  impressive 
assertion. 

Apostrophe,  and  vision  (the  histori- 
cal present),  are  suited  to  dra- 
matic narration. 


io6 


DIGEST  OF  RHETORICAL  RULES 


Figures 
of  Speech 
{Continued) 


'60.  For  illustration,  study  the  use  of 
figures  of  comparison,  as  well  as 
the  handling  of  allegory,  parable, 
and  fable. 

61.  Do  not  use  figures  except  where 

you  desire  to  add  clearness,  force, 
or  beauty. 

62.  Figures  should  harmonize  with  the 

general  character  of  the  discourse. 

63.  Vary  the  use  of  figures  by  studying 

many  different  objects  for  sug- 
gestions. 

64.  Do  not  in  the  same  sentence  mix 

figures  of  speech  with  literal 
language. 

65.  Figures  should  neither  be  carried 

so  far  as  to  be  incongruous,  nor 
be  used  to  excess. 


V.  Variety  of  Expression  for  Repeated  Ideas 

66.  Employ  synonyms. 

67.  Learn  the  use  of  denying  the  con- 
trary of  a  proposition  (litotes). 

68.  Used  guardedly,  circumlocution  fur- 
nishes variety. 

69.  Study  the  art  of  recasting  sen- 
tences. 

70.  Have  recourse  to  epithet. 

71.  Figures  of  speech  afford  variety. 


Means  of  Re- 
peating Ideas 


DIGEST  OF  RHETORICAL  RULES 


I07 


Means  of  Re- 
peating Ideas 
{Continued) 


72. 


73- 


74- 


75- 

76. 
77- 

78. 


Use  declarative,  interrogatory,  and 
exclamatory  forms  interchange- 
ably. 

Expression  may  be  varied  by  chang- 
ing the  voice  of  the  verb. 

Study  the  inversion  produced 
by  introducing  sentences  with 
"there"  and  "it." 

Learn  to  vary  from  direct  to  indi- 
rect quotation  (discourse). 

Employ  the  historical  present. 

Paraphrase  poetic  into  prosaic  lan- 
guage. 

Practice  contracting  clauses  into 
phrases  and  into  words;  and  con- 
trariwise, expanding  words  and 
phrases  into  clauses. 


VI.  The  Thought-divisions 


79- 


80. 


Each  division  of  the  whole  discourse 
should  be  dominated  completely 
by  one  main  thought,  and  upon 
it  directly  should  each  subordi- 
nate thought  depend. 

Each  such  thought-division  must 
preserve  its  unity  by  including 
only  its  own  logical  material. 


io8 


DIGEST  OF  RHETORICAL  RULES 


Relation  of 

Thoughts 
{Continued) 


81.  The  several  divisions  must  follow 

one  another  progressively,  each 
growing  out  of  its  predecessor, 
so  that  the  entire  series  may 
move  toward  a  climax. 

82.  The  transition  from  one  division  to 

another  must  be  smooth  and  un- 
forced. 

83.  All  the  divisions   taken  together 

should  cover  so  much  of  the 
subject  as  you  wish  to  treat. 


VII.  The  Whole  Discourse 


f84 


Entire 
Effect 


Let  your  style  be  determined  by 
the  type  of  the  discourse  and 
by  the  nature  of  the  occasion. 

85.  Do  not  sacrifice  earnestness,  indi- 

viduality, and  directness,  to  gain 
literary  finish ;  you  really  need 
not. 

86.  Subordinate  each  part  of  the  dis- 

course to  the  effect  of  the  whole. 


PART  III 
PREPARATION  OF  THE  SPEAKER 


Speak  not  at  all,  in  any  wise,  till  you  have  somewhat  to  speak ; 
care  not  for  the  reward  of  your  speaking,  but  simply  and  with  un- 
divided mind  for  the  truth  of  your  speaking. 

—  Thomas  Carlyle,  Essay  on  Biography. 

Education  is  the  knowledge  of  how  to  use  the  whole  of  oneself. 
Many  men  use  but  one  or  two  faculties  out  of  the  score  with  which 
they  are  endowed.  A  man  is  educated  who  knows  how  to  make  a 
tool  of  every  faculty  —  how  to  open  it,  how  to  keep  it  sharp,  and 
how  to  apply  it  to  all  practical  purposes.  —  Henry  Ward  Beecher. 


PART  III 


PREPARATION  OF  THE  SPEAKER 

"  The  true  orator  speaks  with  his  entire  personality, 
with  all  the  powers  of  his  being,  and  for  that  reason, 
.  .  .  preceding  his  address,  he  should  summon  and 
concentrate  all  his  instruments."  1 

This  culminating  point  of  preparation  brings  the 
orator  face  to  face  with  himself.  Whatever  of  promise 
he  may  have  put  into  his  prepared  discourse,  it  now 
rests  with  him  to  drive  it  home,  true  and  strong,  as  a 
shaft  to  its  target.  But  this  cannot  be  done  without  a 
special  kind  of  personal  preparation,  which,  under  three 
heads,  we  shall  now  briefly  consider.  Just  how  much 
time  is  to  be  given  to  this  girding  of  the  loins  before 
the  race  will  depend  upon  circumstances,  and  upon  his 
previous  training ;  but  no  speaker  can  afford  to  face  his 
audience  without  serious  attention  to  this  three-fold 
preparation. 

1  Art  of  Extempore  Speaking,  Bautain,  p.  207. 


Hi 


CHAPTER  XV 


MENTAL  PREPARATION 

Things  done  well, 
And  with  a  care,  exempt  themselves  from  fear. 

—  Shakespeare,  Henry  VIII.,  Act  I.  Scene  2. 

When  the  discourse  is  once  committed,  wholly  or  in 
part,  to  writing,  a  sense  of  relief  comes  to  the  orator ; 
he  has  delivered  himself  of  a  burden,  but  only  to  take 
it  up  again  in  a  new  form.  And  just  here  appears  a 
danger,  —  that  the  mind  may  lose  its  sympathetic 
identity  with  the  thing  it  has  just  produced. 

1.    Gripping  the  Discourse 

Did  your  spirit  glow  during  the  writing,  as  thought 
after  thought  came  to  your  mind,  pleading  for  adequate 
expression  ?  Then  in  your  final  preparation  let  those 
same  thoughts  kindle  anew  the  glow,  or  melt  your  spirit 
in  tenderness.  Surrender  your  being  into  the  posses- 
sion of  the  message  which  you  are  to  bear  to  living 
men  and  women.  Or,  as  is  too  often  the  case,  did 
thought  flow  sluggishly  and  emotion  respond  but 
feebly  ?  All  the  more  reason  then  to  grip  masterfully 
112 


MENTAL  PREPARATION 


113 


the  completed  thought  and  let  it  do,  as  a  rounded, 
perfected  unit,  that  which  it  could  not  do  while  as  yet 
it  was  constructing :  transfuse  your  being  —  to  use 
Matthew  Arnold's  expressive  phrase  —  with  its  "sweet- 
ness and  light." 

Be  it  remembered  that  these  maxims  apply  quite  as 
directly  to  the  entire  discourse  as  to  any  of  its  more 
striking  parts.  If  you  would  leave  a  single,  compact, 
powerful  impression  upon  your  audience,  give  soul-room 
to  that  impression  yourself.  Hold  it  up  before  your 
inner  vision,  epitomize  it,  let  your  imagination  play 
upon  it,  see  it  in  all  its  relations,  realize  the  succession 
and  inter-dependence  of  its  divisions ;  grip  it ! 

There  is  no  better  spirit  than  this  with  which  to 
approach  the  work  of  memorizing  for  delivery.  If  the 
effort  is  to  be  a  declamation,  and  the  composition  there- 
fore the  work  of  another,  none  the  less  must  the  mind 
be  widely  opened  to  receive  the  spirit  of  the  selection. 
How  did  the  speaker  feel  when  he  delivered  the  words  ? 
What  audience  sat  before  him,  and  upon  what  occasion  ? 
The  appreciation  of  such  considerations  as  these  will 
change  the  work  of  memorizing  into  that  of  interpreting 
the  spirit  of  the  production  —  the  order  of  the  words 
will  come  with  the  mastery  of  the  thought.  The  same 
is  true  of  committing  your  own  composition,  whether  in 
full  or  in  outline.1 

1  Those  who  would  confine  their  public  efforts  to  extempore  speech  are 
referred  to  the  following  excellent  manuals :  The  Art  of  Extempore  Speak- 
ing, Bautain;  Before  an  Audience,  Sheppard  ;  Extempore  Speech,  Pittenger. 


114 


MENTAL  PREPARATION 


2.  Conserving  Energy 

But  gripping  the  discourse  is  not  all  of  the  work  of 
mental  preparation.  The  Rev.  Dr.  Parkhurst  once 
lamented  the  popular  inability  to  remain  indignant, 
and  assigned  this  as  the  reason  why  so  many  reform 
movements  "  peter  out."  How  many  an  address,  con- 
ceived in  warmth,  written  in  a  glow,  and  begun  with 
ardor,  has  "  petered  out "  before  an  audience,  from  sheer 
lack  of  energy. 

The  athlete  never  does  his  utmost  until  he  is  actually 
competing  for  the  prize.  So  must  the  orator  conserve 
his  energies.  Physical  conditions  have  a  large  influence 
here,  but  the  trouble  is  chiefly  mental. 

After  a  certain  point  has  been  reached  in  your  per- 
sonal preparation,  it  is  time  to  stop.  A  breathing  spell 
is  needed.  Liken  this  to  the  soldier  sleeping  on  his 
arms,  to  the  lull  before  the  conflict,  to  the  calm  before 
the  storm ;  but  by  no  means  disregard  it.  A  period  of 
recuperation  after  mental  strain  —  a  period  neither  so 
long  as  to  invite  lethargy  nor  so  short  as  to  be  useless 
—  will  be  of  incalculable  value  in  sending  you  fresh  and 
self-controlled  to  the  platform. 

The  practice  of  orators  differs  widely  in  this  respect. 
Some  will  work  on  their  preparation  until  the  last  mo- 
ment, and  then  rush  before  the  audience  with  the  glow 
of  the  final  hour  still  suffusing  them ;  while  others 
habitually  lay  aside  their  manuscripts  hours  before 
delivery.    The  latter  —  and  these  seem  to  be  the  nor- 


MENTAL  PREPARATION  115 

mal  public  speakers  —  reserve  the  final  hours  for  rest, 
for  a  short  walk  amid  scenes  of  nature's  beauty,  for  a 
stimulating  book,  for  a  pleasing  conversation, — for  some- 
thing, for  anything,  so  that  they  may  be  delivered  from 
an  exhausting  nightmare  of  fear  and  trembling. 

Who  that  has  ever  suffered  it  can  forget  the  fearful 
heaviness,  deoression,  and  foreboding  that  will  some- 
times weigh  upon  the  speaker  just  before  he  mounts 
the  platform  !  Some  find  relief  in  the  devices  already 
mentioned,  but  nothing,  it  is  said,  can  compose  the 
nerves  and  lift  the  depression  of  some  orators  in  those 
racking  minutes.  But,  the  opening  sentences  once  pro- 
nounced, there  often  follows  a  stimulating  elation  as 
delightful  as  the  mood  of  a  moment  before  was  dis- 
tressing. 

Human  nature  is  cast  in  many  molds.  The  author 
has  known  effective  speakers  who  declare  that  their 
efforts  are  sure  to  be  dull  and  lifeless  unless  they  ap- 
proach the  rostrum  with  the  very  feelings  of  depression 
just  described.  Others,  again,  will  even  sleep  immedi- 
ately before  speaking.  The  general  rule  holds :  it  is 
fatal  to  spend  all  the  energies  before  the  hour  of 
delivery. 


CHAPTER  XVI 


PREPARATION  FOR  EXPRESSION  BY  VOICE 

The  tones  of  human  voices  are  mightier  than  strings  or  brass  to 
move  the  soul.  —  Klopstock. 

The  technical  preparation  of  the  speaker  may  mean 
much  or  little  —  it  depends  upon  his  object.  There  is  a 
sense  in  which  mental  preparation  covers  the  whole  of 
education  ;  and  so  technical  training  —  in  voice,  atti- 
tude, and  gesture  —  may  be  made  the  subject  of  ex- 
haustive study,  or  simply  of  daily  common-sense 
practice.  If  you  expect  to  become  an  actor  or  a 
dramatic  reader,  you  must  follow  the  teaching  of  the 
schools ;  but  if  you  are  resolved  to  be  an  attractive 
platform  speaker,  you  must  teach  yourself. 

Does  that  mean  that  a  teacher  can  do  you  no  good  ? 
It  means  that  he  can  do  you  no  good  unless  you  take 
his  suggestions  and  become  your  own  critic.  You  live 
with  yourself,  and  so  can  hear  yourself  talk  as  often  as 
you  open  your  lips.  Listen,  and  hear  how  your  voice 
sounds.  Cultivate  what  Nathan  Sheppard  calls  the 
"  ear  for  your  own  voice."  1 

The  basis  of  the  maxims  which  follow  in  this  chapter 
is  a  very  simple  one,  but  it  contains  a  world  of  meaning : 

1  Before  an  Audience,  p.  18. 
116 


PREPARATION  FOR  EXPRESSION  BY  VOICE  117 


You  must  enthrone  your  will.  Will-power  will  enable 
you  to  change  your  voice  from  a  squeaking-machine 
into  an  instrument  of  power ;  it  will  enable  you  to  make 
what  tones  you  wish,  how  you  wish,  and  when  you  wish. 
As  soon  think  of  having  an  unmanageable  foot,  that 
kicks  and  jerks  when  you  least  expect,  as  of  having  a 
recalcitrant  vo>e,  that  goes  up  and  down  without  con- 
sulting you. 

You  cannot  do  this  by  trying  to  manage  your  voice 
only  when  you  are  speaking  in  public  or  rehearsing 
for  a  public  effort.  You  must  fail  if  you  try  that. 
Master  your  voice  in  conversation.  What  you  habit- 
ually do  well  in  private  speech  you  will  do  well  in 
public  discourse.  Oratory  is  not  a  dress-suit  any  more 
than  are  good  manners  —  neither  the  one  nor  the  other 
can  be  donned  for  the  occasion.  Practice  the  succeed- 
ing exercises,  not  for  effect,  but  to  secure  perfect 
control.  Do  not  rest  until  you  have  made  your  voice 
so  obedient  that  you  will  use  the  full,  round,  barytone 
in  conversation  as  habitually  as  a  good  speaker  uses  it 
in  oratory.  This  is  the  only  way  to  secure  power,  flex- 
ibility, and  naturalness.  Whenever  you  speak,  make 
your  voice  obey  your  will. 

The  accompanying  principles  are  not  a  system  of 
elocution.  That  is  not  what  you  need.  They  are  sug- 
gestions gleaned  from  many  sources,  all  tested  by  years 
of  use  —  and  all  of  no  value  unless  you  apply  them 
under  the  domination  of  your  will.  Let  your  motto 
be,  My  will  shall  control  my  voice. 


Il8        PREPARATION  FOR  EXPRESSION  BY  VOICE 

I.  Hygiene  of  the  Voice 

(1)  Good  health,  sensible  diet,  and  clean  living  are 
essential  to  a  good  voice. 

(2)  Avoid  patent  medicines  —  consult  a  throat  special- 
ist if  your  throat  is  sore. 

(3)  Use  only  cold  water  in  bathing  the  neck  and 
throat. 

(4)  Tight  collars,  alcoholics,  narcotics,  and  sweet- 
meats will  inflame  a  sensitive  throat. 

2.  Breathing 

(5)  Habitually  breathe  with  the  mouth  closed  ;  if  you 
can't,  find  out  why  you  can't.1 

(6)  Practice  deep  breathing.2 

3.  Elements  of  Expression 

(7)  Vary  the  quality  of  the  voice  to  suit  the  sen- 
timent. 

EXAMPLES 

Pure  :        "  Listen,  my  children,  and  you  shall  hear 
Of  the  midnight  ride  of  Paul  Revere.1' 
Orotund  :  "  Roll  on,  thou  deep  and  dark  blue  ocean,  roll !" 
Aspirate:  "Hush!  sure,  you  heard  it  then! " 
Guttural  :  "  Let  the  carrion  rot ! " 

(8)  Vary  the  force  of  the  voice  so  as  to  assist 
expression. 

1  Habitual  Mouth  Breathing,  Wagner.         3  Art  of  Breathing,  Kofler. 


PREPARATION  FOR  EXPRESSION  BY  VOICE        1 1 9 


EXERCISES 


Soft  to  Loud:  I  do  not  BELIEVE  IT  AT  ALL  ! 
Loud  to  Soft  :  NEVER  will  /  consent ! 
Loud,  Soft,  Loud  :  HOW  strong  soever  may  be  our  DEMANDS. 
Soft,  Loud,  Soft:  Even  though  you  ADMIT  this  absurd  claim. 


(9)  Vary  the  pitch  of  the  voice  to  express  shades 
of  thought  and  feeling,  and  to  avoid  monotony. 

EXERCISES 

(Use  your  will,  and  so  place  your  tone  at  any  pitch 
you  wish.) 

High  :       No ! 

Middle:  No  I 

Low :  NO ! 

Say  "  Yes  "  so  as  to  express  (a)  Contempt,  (6)  Con- 
viction, (c)  Uncertainty,  (d)  Tenderness,  (e)  Indignation, 
(/)  Other  emotions.    Try  the  same  process  with  "  No." 

See  with  how  many  different  emotions  you  can 
pronounce  the  word  "What,"  noting  how  you  uncon- 
sciously vary  the  pitch. 


A -WAY!    A -WAY! 


FOR  -  ward  !    FOR  -  ward ! 


Laughing  Surprise: 


o 


High. 


120        PREPARATION  FOR  EXPRESSION  BY  VOICE 
how 

No  matter 


he  got  it. 


(10)  Vary  the  time  to  suit  the  spirit  of  the  passage. 

EXERCISES 

Slow  :  "  I  will  lift  up  mine  eyes  unto  the  hills  from  whence  cometh 
my  help." 

Hurried  :  Run  quickly,  and  summon  the  guard  ! 
Increasing  :  And  do  you  dare  to  scorn  me  thus  ? 
Broken  :  I  —  a  poor,  decrepit  man  —  reduced  —  to  —  beggary  —  am 

to  become  your  —  heir? 
Moderate  :  These,  then,  are  the  considerations  which  should  affect 

you. 

(u)  Increase  of  time  should  generally  be  accom- 
panied by  increase  of  force,  and  variation  of  pitch 
(inflection). 


EXAMPLE 


Time  Increasing: 


(12)  When  you  decrease  the  time,  lower  the  pitch. 

EXAMPLE 

Solemnly  :  "  I  |  am  |  thy  |  father's  |  spirit." 

(13)  Beware  of  monotony  of  either  pitch  or  time 
—  both  must  constantly  change. 


PREPARATION  FOR  EXPRESSION  BY  VOICE  121 


(14)  A  pause  is  (generally)  made  where  you  would 
place  a  punctuation  mark,  —  to  indicate  a  break  in 
the  thought-movement. 

(15)  Emphasis  is  attained  in  any  of  the  seven  ways 
illustrated  below. 

EXAMPLES 

Increased  Force  :  A  practice  I  have  hated  all  my  life. 
Contrasted  Force:  "Socrates  died  like  a  philosopher;  Jesus 

Christ  died  like  a  God.1' 
Decreased  Force  :  Let  me  whisper  that  fatal  word  —  treason ! 
Pause  :  "  Made  way  for  liberty  —  and  died  !  " 
Voice  Quality  :  Well,  did  he  snarl?  (Guttural.) 

Sound  out  the  truth  like  thunder  I  (Orotund.) 

I  can  hear  the  swish  of  the  task-master^s  whip.  (Aspirate.) 

Varied  Pitch  :  That  man  my  brother? 


Nonsense ! 

Prolonged  Utterance  :  How  he  dr-aw-l-s  his  words. 

(16)  Thought,  not  rule,  governs  emphasis;  such 
words  and  passages  as  contain  the  gist  of  the  sense 
must  be  made  to  stand  out. 

(17)  The  elements  of  expression  are  to  be  used  in 
combination,  —  it  is  this  which  gives  such  infinite 
variety  to  expression. 

(18)  First  learn  to  hear  yourself  speak;  then  let 
your  will  so  dominate  your  voice  that  you  can  change 
its  quality,  control  its  force,  place  its  pitch  (tones), 


122         PREPARATION  FOR  EXPRESSION  BY  VOICE 


regulate  its  time  (rate  of  speech),  and  direct  its 
emphasis,  that  it  will  obey  you  as  promptly  as  the 
fingers  respond  to  the  will  of  a  pianist. 

(19)  Invent  other  exercises  based  upon  the  principles 
expressed  in  the  preceding  maxims. 

4.  Pronunciation 

In  popular  usage,  pronunciation,  enunciation,  and 
articulation  are  synonymous  terms;  but  in  reality  pro- 
nunciation includes  three  distinct  processes,  and  may 
therefore  be  defined  as,  the  utterance  of  a  word  or 
of  a  syllable  with  regard  to  its  articulation,  accentu- 
ation, and  enunciation. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  important  considerations  of 
public  speech.  How  preposterous  it  is  to  hear  a  speaker 
making  sounds  of  "inarticulate  earnestness"  under  the 
fond  delusion  that  he  is  telling  something  to  his  audi- 
ence !  Telling  ?  Telling  means  communicating  by 
word  of  mouth,  and  how  can  he  tell  without  making 
every  word  distinct  ? 

Slovenly  pronunciation,  in  the  three-fold  sense  of 
articulation,  accentuation,  and  enunciation,  results  from 
either  physical  deformity  or  habit.  Will-power  in 
self-observation,  and  resolution  in  drill,  will  break  the 
habit.  All  depends  upon  whether  you  think  it  worth 
while. 

This  defect  is  so  widespread  that  freedom  from  it  is 
the  exception.    It  is  painfully  common  to  hear  public 


PREPARATION  FOR  EXPRESSION  BY  VOICE  I. 33 

speakers  mutilate  the  king's  English.  If  they  do  not 
actually  murder  it,  as  Curran  once  said,  they  often 
knock  an  i  out. 

A  Canadian  clergyman,  writing  in  the  Homiletic 
Review,  relates  that  in  his  student  days  "a  classmate 
who  was  an  Englishman  supplied  a  country  church  for 
a  Sunday.  On  the  following  Monday  he  conducted  a 
missionary  meeting.  In  the  course  of  his  address  he 
said  some  farmers  thought  they  were  doing  their  duty 
toward  missions  when  they  gave  their  '  hodds  and  hends' 
to  the  work,  but  the  Lord  required  more.  At  the  close 
of  the  meeting  a  young  woman  seriously  said  to  a  friend  : 
'  I  am  sure  the  farmers  do  well  if  they  give  their  hogs 
and  hens  to  missions.  It  is  more  than  most  people  can 
afford.' " 

By  what  right  does  any  man  so  impose  upon  the 
public  as  to  garble  his  mother  tongue  before  an  audience  ? 
It  is  insufferable  effrontery  for  a  man  who  persists  in 
driving  the  h  out  of  happiness,  home,  and  heaven,  to 
attempt  to  be  a  public  educator,  as  all  speakers  are.  He 
does  not  show  enough  self-control  even  to  correct  his 
errors.  If  he  can  do  no  better,  he  should  be  silent.  If 
he  will  do  no  better,  he  should  also  be  silent.  If  he 
really  wishes  to  do  better,  he  can,  by  observing  his  pro- 
nunciation and  correcting  its  defects.  It  would  weary 
you  to  hear  the  roll  called  of  those  eloquent  and  force- 
ful orators  who  resolutely  overcame  slovenly  habits  of 
speech. 

Excepting  insuperable  physical  deficiencies,  and  rare 


124        PREPARATION  FOR  EXPRESSION  BY  VOICE 

natural  gifts,  the  whole  question  is  one  of  will.  "  The 
less  there  is  of  yourself  the  more  need  for  you  to  make 
the  most  of  what  there  is  of  you."  1 

Each  of  these  three  elements  of  accurate  pronuncia- 
tion must  now  be  examined.  No  one  who  would  attract 
and  hold  an  audience  can  afford  to  disregard  any  of 
them. 

(a)  "Articulation  is  the  formation,  and  jointing  to- 
gether into  syllables,  of  the  elementary  sounds  of 
speech."  2 

From  the  forty-four  elementary  sounds  in  our  lan- 
guage are  produced  the  (about)  one  third  of  a  million 
distinct  words  which  go  to  make  up  our  English  vocabu- 
lary. It  will  be  conceded  that  the  right  use  of  these 
elemental  sounds  is  important  indeed.  Many  can 
glibly  recite  them  all;  but  how  few  approach  correct 
usage ! 

Where  lies  the  trouble  ? 

Aside  from  physical  defects,  which  only  the  skill  of  a 
surgeon  or  of  a  dentist  can  remedy,  the  real  difficulties 
are  to  be  found  in  four  evident  facts :  ignorance  of  the 
elemental  sounds;  failure  to  discriminate  between  sounds 
nearly  alike ;  a  slovenly,  lazy  use  of  the  vocal  organs ; 
and  a  torpid  will.  Any  one  who  is  still  master  of  him- 
self will  know  how  to  handle  each  of  these  defects. 

The  vowel  sounds  are  the  most  vexing  source  of 
errors,  especially  where  diphthongs  are  found.  What 

1  Before  an  Audience,  Sheppard,  p.  21. 
3  Elocution,  Mcllvaine,  p.  199. 


PREPARATION  FOR  EXPRESSION  BY  VOICE  12$ 


refined  ear  has  not  quivered  to  hear  such  errors  as  ara 
humorously  hit  off  in  Dr.  Holmes's  inimitable  verse:  — 

"  Learning  condemns  beyond  the  reach  of  hope 
The  careless  lips  that  speak  of  soap  for  soap ; 
Her  edict  exiles  from  her  fair  abode 
The  clownish  voice  that  utters  road  for  road ; 
Less  stern  to  him  who  calls  his  c5at  a  coat, 
And  steers  his  boat  believing  it  a  boat. 
She  pardoned  one,  our  classic  city's  boast, 
Who  said  at  Cambridge,  most  instead  of  most, 
But  knit  her  brows  and  stamped  her  angry  foot 
To  hear  a  Teacher  call  a  root  a  root.1' 

No  one  seems  to  find  it  difficult  to  say  beatify,  but 
many  persist  in  articulating  duty  as  though  it  were 
spelled  either  dooty  or  juty.  No  more  do  we  hear  few 
uttered  as  foo,  but  how  few  articulate  new  as  they  do 
few?  It  is  not  only  from  untaught  speakers  that  we 
hear  such  slovenly  articulations  as  certen  for  certain, 
pritty  for  pretty,  crick  for  creek,  but  even  great  orators 
occasionally  offend  quite  as  unblushingly  as  less  noted 
mortals. 

The  most  common  errors  in  articulating  vowel  sounds 
are  found  in  uttering  words  of  the  kind  already  noted. 
Nearly  all  are  errors  of  carelessness,  not  of  pure  igno- 
rance, —  of  carelessness  because  the  ear  never  tries  to 
hear  what  the  lips  articulate.  To  be  sure,  it  must  be 
exasperating  to  a  foreigner  to  find  that  the  elemental 
sound  ou  gives  him  no  hint  for  the  articulation  of 
bough,  cough,  rough,  thorough,  and  through.    We  can 


L26        PREPARATION  FOR  EXPRESSION  BY  VOICE 

well  forgive  even  a  man  of  culture  who  occasionally 
loses  his  way  amidst  the  intricacies  of  English  articula- 
tion, but  there  can  be  no  excuse  for  the  slovenly  utter- 
ance of  the  simple  vowel  sounds  which  form  at  once  the 
life  and  the  beauty  of  our  language.  He  who  is  too 
lazy  to  speak  distinctly  should  hold  his  tongue. 

The  consonant  sounds  can  occasion  serious  trouble  to 
those  only  who  do  not  look  with  care  at  the  spelling  of 
words  about  to  be  pronounced.  Nothing  but  careless- 
ness can  account  for  saying  Jacop,  Babtist,  sevem,  alwus, 
or  sadisfy. 

"  He  that  hath  yaws  to  yaw,  let  him  yaw,"  is  the 
rendering  which  an  English  clergyman  gave  of  the 
familiar  scripture,  "  He  that  hath  ears  to  hear,  let  him 
hear." 

After  hearing  the  name  of  Sir  Humphry  Davy  pro- 
nounced, a  Frenchman  who  wished  to  write  to  the  emi- 
nent Englishman  thus  addressed  the  letter :  "  Serum 
Fridavi."  Pronounce  the  proper  name  as  carelessly  as 
men  usually  do,  and  then  say  if  the  Frenchman  did  not 
do  quite  well. 

(b)  Accentuation  is  the  process  of  placing  stress  upon 
the  proper  syllables  of  words.  This  is  what  is  popu- 
larly called  pronunciation.  For  instance,  we  properly 
say  that  a  word  is  mispronounced  when  it  is  accented 
in'-vite  instead  of  in-vite' ,  though  it  is  really  an  offense 
against  only  one  form  of  pronunciation. 

It  is  the  work  of  a  lifetime  to  learn  the  accents  of 
a  large  vocabulary  and  to  keep  pace  with  changing 


PREPARATION  FOR  EXPRESSION  BY  VOICE         1 27 


usage  ;  but  a  keen  ear,  the  study  of  word-origins,  and 
the  dictionary  habit,  will  prove  mighty  helpers  in  a  task 
which  can  never  be  perfectly  consummated. 

(c)  Correct  enunciation  is  the  complete  utterance  of 
all  the  sounds  of  a  syllable  or  a  word.  Wrong  articula- 
tion gives  the  wrong  sound  to  the  vowel  or  vowels  of  a 
word  or  a  syllable  ;  wrong  enunciation  is  the  incomplete 
utterance  of  a  syllable  or  a  word,  the  sound  omitted  or 
added  being  usually  consonantal.  To  say  chuck-full 
instead  of  chock-full  is  a  wrong  articulation ;  to  say  doin 
for  doing  is  improper  enunciation.  The  one  gives  the 
word  a  positively  wrong  sound ;  the  other  fails  to  touch 
all  the  sounds  in  a  word,  or  carelessly  adds  a  sound  not 
to  be  properly  found  there. 

"  My  tex'  may  be  foun'  in  the  fif '  and  six'  verses  of 
the  secon'  chapter  of  Titus ;  and  the  subjec'  of  my  dis- 
course is  '  The  Gover'ment  of  ar  Homes.'  "  1 

What  did  this  preacher  do  with  his  final  consonants  ? 
This  slovenly  dropping  of  essential  sounds  is  as  offen- 
sive as  the  common  habit  of  running  words  together 
so  that  they  lose  their  individuality  and  distinctness. 
Lighten  dark,  uppen  down,  doncher  know,  up  te  date, 
lots  o'  snow,  zamination,  are  all  too  common  to  need 
comment. 

Imperfect  enunciation  is  due  to  lack  of  attention  and 
to  lazy  lips.  It  can  be  corrected  by  resolutely  attending 
to  the  formation  of  syllables  as  they  are  uttered.  Flex- 
ible lips  will  enunciate  difficult  combinations  of  sounds 

1  School  and  College  Speaker,  Mitchell,  p.  xvii. 


128         PREPARATION  FOR  EXPRESSION  BY  VOICE 

without  slighting  any  of  them,  but  such  flexibility  can- 
not be  attained  except  by  habitually  uttering  words 
with  distinctness  and  accuracy.  A  daily  exercise  in 
enunciating  a  series  of  sounds  will  in  a  short  time  give 
flexibility  to  the  lips  and  alertness  to  the  mind,  so  that 
no  word  will  be  uttered  without  receiving  its  due  com- 
plement of  sound. 

Sound  every  consonant  in  the  following 

EXERCISES 

"  Foolish  Flavius,  flushing  feverishly,  fiercely  found 
fault  with  Flora's  frivolity."  1 

Mary's  matchless  mimicry  makes  much  mischief. 

Seated  on  shining  shale  she  sells  sea  shells. 

You  youngsters  yielded  your  youthful  yule-tide  yearn 
ings  yesterday. 

Returning  to  our  definition,  we  see  that  when  the 
sounds  of  a  word  are  properly  articulated,  the  right 
syllables  accented,  and  full  value  given  to  each  sound 
in  its  enunciation,  we  have  correct  pronunciation. 
Perhaps  one  word  of  caution  is  needed  here,  lest  any 
one,  anxious  to  bring  out  clearly  every  sound,  should 
overdo  the  matter  and  neglect  the  unity  and  smoothness 
of  pronunciation.  Be  careful  not  to  bring  syllables  into 
so  much  prominence  as  to  make  words  seem  long  and 
angular.    The  joints  must  be  kept  decently  dressed. 

Before  delivery,  do  not  fail  to  go  over  your  manu- 

1  School  and  College  Speaker,  Mitchell,  p.  xxix. 


PREPARATION  FOR  EXPRESSION  BY  VOICE         1 29 

script  and  note  every  sound  which  may  possibly  be 
mispronounced.  Consult  the  dictionary  and  make  assur- 
ance doubly  sure.  If  the  arrangement  of  words  is  un- 
favorable to  clear  enunciation,  change  either  words  or 
order,  and  do  not  rest  until  you  can  follow  Hamlet's 
directions  to  the  players  :  — 

"  Speak  the  speech,  I  pray  you,  as  I  pronounced  it  to 
you,  trippingly  on  the  tongue :  but  if  you  mouth  it,  as 
many  of  our  players  do,  I  had  as  lief  the  town  crier 
spoke  my  lines." 1 

!Act  III.  Scene  2.    See  also  pp.  159,  160. 


CHAPTER  XVII 


PREPARATION  FOR  EXPRESSION  BY  ACTION 

Action  is  eloquence,  and  the  eyes  of  the  ignorant 
More  learned  than  the  ears. 

—  Shakespeare,  Coriolanas,  Act  III.  Scene  2. 

In  one  aspect,  the  matters  touched  upon  in  this  chap- 
ter belong  in  strictness  to  the  subject  of  delivery,  but 
since  those  who  would  turn  these  hints  into  helps  must 
make  use  of  them  while  preparing,  the  existing  arrange- 
ment is  probably  better. 

There  are  two  points  to  bear  in  mind  here.  First, 
Action  is  expression.  Therefore,  do  those  things,  and 
those  things  only,  which  help  to  carry  your  thought  and 
feeling  effectively  home  to  your  audience.  Words  are 
cold  without  action.  Smiles  and  tears,  caresses  and 
blows,  movement  and  gesture,  are  all  gifts  of  a  benefi- 
cent Creator,  intended  to  express  the  self  within.  Voice 
is  expression  appealing  to  the  ear.  Action  is  expression 
appealing  to  the  eye. 

Two  men  are  accused  of  wrong-doing.  Neither  of 
them  speak  a  word,  yet  both  are  expressing  themselves. 
See  the  indignant  surprise  gleaming  from  the  face, 
straining  from  the  tense  limbs,  quivering  in  the  whole 
action,  of  the  one.  See  the  hang-dog  spirit  that  utters 
itself  in  every  pose  and  movement  of  the  other.  Actions 
130 


PREPARATION  FOR  EXPRESSION  BY  ACTION  131 

speak  louder  than  words.  True,  we  may  be  deceived 
by  both,  but  action  comes  the  more  sincerely  to  the  sur- 
face. The  very  look  of  an  intensely  earnest  man  is 
eloquent.  Action  is  expression.  What  have  you  to 
express  ?  No  man  can  be  magnetic  with  nothing  in  his 
mental  and  spiritual  battery.  First  let  your  message 
kindle  your  soul.  Then  make  your  soul  kindle  your 
body.  Both  together  will  kindle  any  audience.  Hence 
the  second  point :  — 

Actio7i  must  be  kindled  and  controlled  by  will.  When 
it  is  not,  a  man  is  dreaming,  or  nervous,  or  crazy.  Do 
not  let  your  legs  and  arms  manage  you — manage  them. 
Does  that  mean  that  you  must  be  always  thinking  of 
your  movements  ?  Are  you  always  thinking  of  your 
feet  in  company  ?  You  keep  them  where  they  belong, 
with  the  least  possible  attention.  Just  so  you  must 
subject  your  body  to  your  will,  that  you  may  be  able 
to  put  your  trunk  and  limbs  anywhere  you  want  them 
to  be,  and  make  them  stay  there  until  it  is  proper  to 
move. 

1.  Carriage 

Healthy  muscles  are  easily  controlled.  Therefore, 
exercise  your  body.  It  is  beginning  at  the  wrong  end 
to  tell  a  man  not  to  plunk  down  his  feet  with  a  thump, 
not  to  stand  "  pigeon-toed "  or  with  feet  pointed  ag- 
gressively straight  toward  his  audience,  not  to  shift 
nervously  from  one  foot  to  the  other,  not  to  lose  his  bal- 
ance, not  to  walk  as  though  he  had  spent  all  his  life  in 


132       PREPARATION  FOR  EXPRESSION  BY  ACTION 

jail ;  all  this  is  beginning  at  the  wrong  end.  The  head 
controls  the  feet  —  or  ought  to.  Let  the  will  take  care 
of  the  legs,  and  soon  the  maxims  of  the  elocutionist  will 
become  unnecessary.  Not  all  men  are  graceful ;  not 
all  men  can  be  ;  but  all  men  can  put  erectness,  self- 
respect,  decision,  and  self-control  into  their  carriage. 
There  is  no  difference  between  walking  respectably  in 
a  drawing-room  and  walking  easily  on  the  platform.  If 
the  chin  and  abdomen  are  thrust  forward  and  the  chest 
depressed  in  every-day  life,  the  clothes  will  not  fit  when 
an  erect  carriage  is  attempted  before  an  audience.  Car- 
riage must  become  habitual.  It  requires  muscle  to  keep 
the  chest  up  and  chin  in,  —  muscle  and  will. 

It  is  not  denied  that  directions  as  to  how  to  stand  and 
walk  are  valuable.  They  are.  But  what  is  insisted 
upon  is  that  presence  must  express  attitude  of  mind 
and  feeling,  and  that  the  will  must  control :  in  a  word, 
that  the  way  to  look  like  a  man  is  to  be  a  man. 

"  Only  be  natural,"  say  the  manuals.  It  will  not  do 
for  some  men  to  be  natural.  That  were  too  bad.  "  It 
is  perfectly  natural,"  says  Nathan  Sheppard,  "  for  some 
people  to  lose  their  heads  just  when  their  heads  are 
most  needed."  Be  natural,  is  not  safe  advice ;  but  it  is 
safe  to  urge  a  man  to  be  his  best  possible  self  when  he 
speaks  in  public  —  as  well  as  when  nobody  sees  him. 

2.   The  Head  and  Face 

All  that  has  preceded  in  this  chapter  may  well  apply 
to  the  head  and  face.    A  wobbly  head,  frenzied  eyes, 


PREPARATION  FOR  EXPRESSION  BY  ACTION         1 33 

nervous  grimaces,  unconscious  scowling,  all  can  be 
stopped  by  resolution ;  but  it  cannot  in  a  moment  supply 
the  lack  of  soul.  Light  of  eye,  lines  of  face,  poise  of  head, 
are  expressions  of  something  inside.  If  that  something 
is  not  within,  put  it  there.  When  trees  do  not  bear  fruit, 
men  get  at  their  roots ;  they  do  not  tie  fruit  upon  the 
branches.  Cultivate  your  soul.  If  you  have  an  earnest 
spirit,  form  the  habit  of  expressing  it  in  your  features. 

Test  this.  Awaken  within  yourself  successively  the 
emotions  of  Depression,  Exaltation,  Joy,  Affection,  Ado- 
ration, Confidence,  Doubt,  Suspicion,  Arrogance,  Con- 
tempt. Let  the  head  change  its  position,  the  eyes  then- 
light,  and  the  face  its  lines,  so  as  to  express  each  emo- 
tion in  turn.  Do  this,  not  by  thinking  how  you  have 
seen  others  act  in  such  moods,  but  observe  how  you 
would  express  it  if  you  were  mute  and  your  life  de- 
pended upon  making  some  one  else  understand  your 
feeling  by  your  head  and  face  alone.    Test  this. 

What  an  inspiration  it  is  to  look  into  the  faces  of 
some  speakers  !  How  wooden  are  others,  and  how  are 
their  thoughts  handicapped  in  their  utterance.  A  mo- 
bile, sensitive,  expressive  face  is  as  much  a  matter  of 
habit  as  brushing  the  teeth  —  and  to  the  public  speaker 
quite  as  imperative  a  duty. 

3.  Gesture 

"When  Voltaire  was  preparing  a  young  actress  to 
appear  in  one  of  his  tragedies,  he  tied  her  hands  to 
her  sides  with  pack  thread  in  order  to  check  her 


134       PREPARATION  FOR  EXPRESSION  BY  ACTION 


tendency  toward  exuberant  gesticulation.  Under  this 
condition  of  compulsory  immobility  she  commenced  to 
rehearse,  and  for  some  time  she  bore  herself  calmly 
enough ;  but  at  last,  completely  carried  away  by  her 
feelings,  she  burst  her  bonds  and  flung  up  her  arms. 
Alarmed  at  her  supposed  neglect  of  his  instructions, 
she  began  to  apologize  to  the  poet ;  he  smilingly  reas- 
sured her,  however ;  the  gesture  was  then  admirable,  be- 
cause it  was  irrepressible."  1 

Problems  differ.  The  author's  difficulty  has  been  to 
get  pupils  to  become  so  enthusiastic  as  to  break  the 
pack  thread  of  their  own  inert  delivery.  It  is  compar- 
atively easy  to  repress  vivacity.  Anybody  can  grow 
cold,  not  every  one  can  become  hot  in  public  speech. 
The  lack  of  physical  earnestness  has  killed  more  speeches 
than  has  over-demonstration.  Both  are  evils,  but  fly  to 
the  latter  rather  than  embrace  the  former.  Voltaire's 
actress  had  too  much  spirit,  most  public  speakers  have 
too  little.  Let  it  not  be  overlooked,  however,  that 
pounding  the  desk  is  not  expounding  the  subject. 

So  gesture  is  more  than  the  explosion  of  physical 
earnestness.  It  is  also  a  medium  of  expression  for 
thought,  feeling,  and  will.  How  you  gesticulate  must 
depend  upon  these  conditions. 

The  gesture  of  the  actor  is  not  that  of  the  public 
speaker.  The  speaker  does  not  sink  himself  in  the 
character  whose  words  he  is  repeating  in  either  illustra- 
tion or  declamation.    He  is  still  himself,  and  a  too  exact 

1  The  Actor's  Art,  Redway,  p.  48. 


I 


PREPARATION  FOR  EXPRESSION  BY  ACTION  135 

personation  is  offensive.  The  speaker  "must  suggest 
the  picture  and  allow  the  imagination  of  the  audience 
to  paint  it.  .  .  .  The  drawing  of  a  dagger  may  be  indi- 
cated, but  there  is  no  necessity  for  sheathing  it."  1 

But  if  the  orator  may  not  adopt  the  methods  of  the 
actor,  he  may  at  least  learn  from  him  a  lesson  in  dra- 
matic earnestness  —  a  lesson,  however,  not  to  be  found 
in  books.  If  it  kindles  in  the  heart  it  will  suffuse  the 
body  and  burst  out  in  the  flame  of  action.  Moral  ear- 
nestness and  physical  vim  God  yoked  together;  let  no 
man  divorce  them.  See  to  it  that  a  reality  of  belief  in 
your  theme,  a  realization  of  its  importance,  exists  in 
your  heart,  and  then  you  will  not  need  to  act,  for  you 
will  express.  The  actor  may  teach  you  how  to  use 
physical  earnestness,  but  moral  earnestness  must  be 
yours  before  you  begin. 

George  Whitefield,  the  early  Methodist  preacher,  at- 
tained to  such  dramatic  power  of  utterance  that  Garrick 
became  jealous,  while  the  skeptic  Hume  "went  great 
distances  to  hear  doctrines  that  he  detested  delivered  in 
a  style  that  fascinated  him." 

One  day,  while  preaching,  Whitefield  "suddenly  as- 
sumed a  nautical  air  and  manner  that  were  irresistible 
with  him,"  and  broke  forth  in  these  words :  "Well,  my 
boys,  we  have  a  clear  sky,  and  are  making  fine  headway 
over  a  smooth  sea  before  a  light  breeze,  and  we  shall 
soon  lose  sight  of  land.  But  what  means  this  sudden 
lowering  of  the  heavens,  and  that  dark  cloud  arising 

1  Practical  Elocution,  Fulton  and  Trueblood,  p.  341. 


I36       PREPARATION  FOR  EXPRESSION  BY  ACTION 

from  beneath  the  western  horizon ?  Hark!  Don't  you 
hear  distant  thunder?  Don't  you  see  those  flashes  of 
lightning?  There  is  a  storm  gathering!  Every  man 
to  his  duty!  The  air  is  dark! — the  tempest  rages!  — 
our  masts  are  gone! — the  ship  is  on  her  beam  ends! 
What  next?"  At  this  a  number  of  sailors  in  the  con- 
gregation, utterly  swept  away  by  the  dramatic  descrip- 
tion, leaped  to  their  feet  and  cried  :  "  The  longboat !  — 
take  to  the  longboat !  " 1 

Upon  another  occasion,  "when  Whitefield  acted  an 
old  blind  man,  advancing  by  slow  steps  toward  the  edge 
of  the  precipice,  Lord  Chesterfield  started  up  and  cried, 
'  Good  God,  he  is  gone ! '  "  1 

You  can  do  this  if  there  is  a  Whitefield  under  your 
vest.  At  any  rate,  you  can  be  your  best  possible  self. 
David  could  not  fight  in  Saul's  armor,  but  he  slew  the 
giant  with  a  pebble  from  the  brook. 

But,  it  is  said,  have  you  no  rule  for  making  ges- 
tures ?  Yes,  one :  Think !  Observe,  imitate,  practice, 
of  course ;  but  think.  Does  it  require  anything  more 
than  cool  thinking  to  enable  the  veriest  novice  to 
evolve  the  following  rules,  all  seriously  set  forth  in 
manuals  of  Elocution  ?  — 

"  Avoid  awkwardness." 

"  The  Fist  gesture  represents  that  which  is  forcible 
in  its  character,  addressing  itself  to  the  will  and  the 
activities ;  when  used  descriptively,  it  represents  that 
which  can  grasp,  confine,  or  control" 

1  Before  an  Audience,  Sheppard,  p.  SS. 


PREPARATION  FOR  EXPRESSION  BY  ACTION        1 37 

"  The  Hand  Index  points  out,  counts,  analyzes,  warns, 
accuses,  threatens." 

"  Do  not  make  too  many  gestures  with  one  hand." 

"Don't  hold  the  hands  as  though  you  had  bird-shot 
in  each  hollow,  and  feared  that  it  would  roll  out." 

"  In  the  act  of  sitting,  the  body  should  be  in  front  of 
the  chair,  and  the  back  toward  it." 

Upon  reading  such  inspiring  directions  one  feels  the 
irresistible  impulse  to  cry  out,  Of  course !  Some  things 
may  with  safety  be  left  to  common  sense.  The  author 
has  never  yet  found  a  pupil  who  hankered  to  sit  down 
while  his  body  was  back  of  the  chair.  It  is  futile  to 
give  directions  to  imbeciles,  but  the  earnest  speaker 
may  find  out  the  points  of  gesture  by  thinking.  Hol- 
yoake  says,  "Sincerity  is  not  always  elegance,  nor  is 
earnestness  always  grace ;  nevertheless,  earnestness  is 
the  best  schoolmaster  in  gesture  —  if,  it  may  be  added, 
earnestness  has  learned  to  think." 

"Back  to  nature,"  the  philosophers  are  crying.  Let 
us  echo  the  cry.  Observe  the  human  form  in  all  its 
moods,  catch  inspiration  from  great  speakers,  study  the 
poses  reproduced  by  the  master  painters,  emulate  the 
freedom  and  dignity  the  ancient  sculptors  carved  in 
their  deathless  marbles  —  Think  !    Will  ! 


CHAPTER  XVIII 


PREPARATION  BY  DRILL 

Suit  the  action  to  the  word,  and  the  word  to  the  action. 

—  Shakespeare,  Hamlet,  Act  III.  Scene  2. 

Not  every  one  makes  a  practice  of  rehearsing  an 
address ;  not  every  one  should.  The  remarks  in  this 
chapter  are  directed  to  those  speakers,  especially  col- 
lege declaimers  and  orators,  to  whom  rehearsal  is 
important. 

Let  it  be  remembered  that  there  are  some  things 
rehearsals  can  do,  and  some  things  they  cannot.  They 
are  useful  in  discovering  whether  the  written  discourse 
is  suited  to  public  utterance  —  is  the  introduction  easy, 
are  the  climaxes  well  arranged,  is  the  style  direct  and 
forceful,  is  the  conclusion  effective  ?  If  not,  remedy  the 
defect  at  once. 

Again,  rehearsals  will  reveal  defects  of  utterance, 
bearing,  and  gesture.  How  fully  such  weaknesses  may 
be  removed  in  the  short  time  allotted  for  rehearsal  is 
an  individual  problem. 

Upon  the  other  hand,  private  drill  can  give  you  no 
adequate  impression  of  the  power  of  your  audience  to 
hinder  or  to  help.  The  fright  and  the  stimulus  alike 
138 


PREPARATION  BY  DRILL 


139 


are  lacking.  Therefore,  do  not  place  all  reliance  in. 
rehearsal,  but  reserve  your  forces  of  self-command  and 
resourcefulness  to  the  hour  of  delivery. 

1.  General  Suggestions 

The  first  step  is  to  read  the  production  aloud  so  as 
to  interpret  it  intelligently.  The  next  is  the  work  of 
memorizing.  Not  until  these  two  important  prelimina- 
ries have  been  disposed  of  should  the  regular  rehearsals 
begin. 

Do  not  rehearse  so  long  and  so  often  as  to  rob  your 
efforts  of  zest,  nor  so  infrequently  as  to  send  you  to 
the  platform  illy  prepared.  In  training  for  a  contest, 
the  athlete  takes  care  to  be  neither  under-trained  nor 
trained  to  the  point  of  staleness. 

Before  mind  and  body  have  become  jaded  with 
the  day's  work  is  the  best  time  for  rehearsal.  Fifteen 
minutes  in  the  fresh  of  the  morning  are  worth  an  hour 
of  listless  labor  at  night.  Never  continue  rehearsals 
up  to  within  an  hour  or  two  of  delivery ;  at  that  late 
moment  you  can  add  nothing  of  value  to  your  degree 
of  preparedness  —  you  are  pretty  certain  to  detract 
therefrom. 

If  possible,  some  of  the  rehearsals  should  take  place 
in  the  auditorium  in  which  the  discourse  is  to  be  de< 
livered.  But  at  all  events  private  "  vehement  reflection  " 
upon  your  subject,  in  which  you  rehearse  it  without 
uttering  a  word  aloudt  is  a  most  valuable  form  of  drill. 


140 


PREPARATION  BY  DRILL 


2.  The  Will  in  Rehearsal 


It  is  of  prime  importance  that  the  will  should  domi- 
nate in  rehearsal.  Are  you  weary,  has  your  production 
lost  interest  for  you,  are  you  torpid — what  difference? 
The  youth  of  to-day  is  entirely  too  susceptible  to  the 
state  of  his  feelings  in  relation  to  the  performance  of 
duty.  Just  as  little  as  a  soldier  would  think  of  giving 
over  drill  for  some  slight  cause,  so  little  must  you 
permit  trifling  matters  to  interfere  with  rehearsal.  If 
your  drills  are  conducted  in  the  presence  of  an  instruc- 
tor, he  may  be  suffering  ten  times  the  weariness  and 
lack  of  interest  in  the  theme  which  afflict  you,  yet  at 
the  call  of  duty  he  will  arouse  his  energies  to  put  life 
into  his  teaching.  And  you  can  do  so  as  well.  Com- 
pel yourself  to  put  snap  and  alertness  into  your  work. 
"  I  don't  feel  like  it "  should  no  more  be  taken  as  an 
excuse  for  indifferent  performance  in  the  rehearsal  of 
a  speech  than  in  business,  football,  or  any  other  matter 
requiring  vim  and  ardor.  He  who  wills  to  do  his  best 
at  every  rehearsal,  speaking  always  with  his  audience 
in  fancy  before  him ;  who  trains  his  faculties  to  respond 
to  the  spur  of  his  resolution ;  who  strives  to  be  as 
conscientious  in  delivery  before  a  single  critic  as  he 
would  be  in  the  presence  of  a  multitude, — he  may  be 
depended  upon  in  delivery  to  excel  his  best  effort  during 
rehearsal.  Many  an  orator  is  said  to  "  rise  to  the  occa- 
sion," when  he  has  simply  prepared  carefully. 


PREPARATION  BY  DRILL 


141 


3.  Criticism  during  Rehearsal 

Burns  sang  of  a  universal  need  in  his  familiar  lines :  — 

"  O,  wad  some  power  the  giftie  gie  us 
To  see  oursels  as  others  see  us  ! 
It  wad  frae  monie  a  blunder  free  us, 

And  foolish  notion : 
What  airs  in  dress  an'  gait  wad  lea'e  us, 

And  e'en  devotion."  1 

Now  the  public  speaker  may  be  quite  sure  that  others 
will  both  see  and  criticise  him  ;  but  he  may  be  equally 
sure  that  sharp  criticism  during  rehearsal  will  lessen 
adverse  comment  after  delivery.  Do  not  be  hyper- 
sensitive. "  The  strength  of  criticism,"  says  Long- 
fellow, "lies  only  in  the  weakness  of  the  thing 
criticised."  Let  the  orator  learn  to  turn  even  unjust 
criticism  to  account  —  it  may  at  least  teach  him 
humility. 

Cicero  once  asked  a  friend  to  write  him  what  opinion 
Julius  Caesar  had  expressed  of  Cicero's  verses,  and 
requested  a  frank  answer,  "  for,"  said  the  orator,  "  what- 
ever he  says,  I  should  not  think  a  hair  the  less  of 
myself." 

How  different  this  from  the  spirit  of  Plato,  who, 
when  he  was  told  that  even  the  boys  in  the  streets 
were  laughing  at  his  singing,  replied,  "Aye,  then  I 
must  learn  to  sing  better." 

Criticism   during  rehearsal  may  come  from  three 

1  To  a  Louse. 


142 


PREPARATION  BY  DRILL 


sources  :  from  an  instructor,  who  will  speak  for  him- 
self ;  from  a  friend,  who  is  less  likely  to  speak  his  mind 
freely ;  from  the  orator  himself,  who  is  prone  to  be 
either  too  biased  or  too  severe  a  critic.  Yet  self- 
criticism  is  often  the  orator's  only  resort,  his  best 
friend.  Emerson  said  that  we  need  some  one  to  make 
us  do  what  we  can.  The  orator  r-nst  often  perform 
this  service  for  himself.  Happy  is  he  whose  mind  is  so 
sensitive  that  it  serves  as  a  sort  of  triplicate  mirror  in 
which  he  views  his  own  oratorical  efforts.  Therein  he 
will  study  himself  as  calmly,  as  impartially,  and  with  as 
little  morbid  sensitiveness  as  he  would  the  delivery  and 
the  deliverances  of  another.  His  mental  alertness  will 
make  him  to  perceive  faults  which  his  eye  cannot  see, 
and  to  feel  the  propriety  of  an  expression  or  of  a  move- 
ment without  the  aid  of  any  other  critic. 

One  great  danger  is  that  the  critic  of  self  will  beoome 
hypercritical.  When  once  this  faculty  is  aroused,  it 
easily  degenerates  into  morbidness,  unless  held  in  the 
grip  of  common  sense.  Audiences  are  neither  perfect 
critics  nor  of  an  extraordinary  average  culture,  therefore 
be  moderate  in  self -judgment.  It  will  not  do  to  treat 
yourself  as  Thackeray  treated  the  public.  "  The  tinker 
thinks  every  pot  is  unsound.  The  cobbler  doubts  the 
stability  of  every  shoe.  So  at  last  it  grew  to  be  the  case 
with  Thackeray.  .  .  .  Keenness  became  so  aggravated 
by  the  intenseness  of  his  search  that  the  slightest 
speck  of  dust  became  to  his  eyes  as  a  foul  stain." 
"St.  Michael  would  have  carried  his  armor  amiss,  and 


PREPARATION  BY  DRILL 


143 


St.  Cecilia  have  been  snobbish  as  she  twanged  her 
harp."  1 

The  attitude  of  wise  self-criticism  is  based  upon  knowl- 
edge ;  it  is  upset  by  self-conceit ;  it  is  distorted  by  over- 
sensitiveness.  The  knowledge  of  a  thousand  rules 
cannot  be  actively  present  in  the  mind  during  either 
preparation  or  delivery,  but  these  same  rules,  once 
mastered,  become  unified  in  the  mind  into  a  standard 
of  excellence.  Now  it  is  the  function  of  self-criticism 
to  measure  self,  and  the  products  of  self,  by  this  stand- 
ard. In  other  words,  the  canons  of  logic,  rhetoric,  and 
elocution  must  cease  to  be  mere  canons  and  become  an 
attitude  of  mind.  Then,  when  the  critic  of  self  judges 
his  own  productions,  he  will  do  so  without  conscious 
reference  to  rules. 

Of  course,  it  is  too  much  to  expect  that  an  inexperienced 
orator  should  have  brought  the  art  of  self -valuation  to 
this  degree  of  perfection.  Therefore,  until  the  hour  of 
such  attainment,  it  may  be  well  for  him  to  apply  to  the 
discourse  and  to  its  delivery  the  tests  suggested  through- 
out this  treatise. 

1  Life  of  Thackeray,  Trollope,  Chap.  II. 


PART  IV 
DELIVERY 


For  an  orator  delivery  is  everything.  —  Goethe. 

Tact  is  not  a  sixth  sense,  but  it  is  the  life  of  all  the  five.  It  is  the 
open  eye,  the  quick  ear,  the  judging  taste,  the  keen  smell,  and  the 
lively  touch  ;  it  is  the  interpreter  of  all  riddles,  the  surmounter  of  all 
difficulties,  the  remover  of  all  obstacles. 

Talent  is  power,  tact  is  skill ;  talent  is  weight,  tact  is  momentum  ; 
talent  knows  what  to  do,  tact  knows  how  to  do  it.  Tact  makes  no 
false  steps ;  it  hits  the  right  nail  on  the  head ;  it  loses  no  time ;  it 
takes  all  hints ;  and,  by  keeping  its  eye  on  the  weathercock,  is  ready 
to  take  advantage  of  every  wind  that  blows. 

—  Condensed  from  London  Atlas. 


PART  IV 


DELIVERY 

The  crown,  the  consummation,  of  the  discourse  is  its 
delivery.  Toward  it  all  preparation  looks,  for  it  the 
audience  waits,  by  it  the  speaker  is  judged.  Whatever 
of  stress  has  been  laid  upon  previous  chapters  has  been 
for  the  sake  of  bringing  the  discourse  to  a  successful 
delivery.  All  the  forces  of  the  orator's  life  converge  in 
his  oratory.  The  logical  acuteness  with  which  he  mar- 
shals the  facts  about  his  theme,  the  rhetorical  facility 
with  which  he  orders  his  language,  the  control  to  which 
he  has  attained  in  the  use  of  his  body  as  a  single  organ 
of  expression,  whatever  richness  of  acquisition  and  ex- 
perience are  his,  —  these  all  are  now  incidents,  the  fact 
is  the  sending  of  his  message  home  to  his  hearers. 
Inventive  genius,  materials,  workmanship,  completed 
gun,  powder,  marksmanship,  yes,  and  ball  itself,  exist 
not  more  singly  and  really  for  the  sake  of  sending  that 
projectile  to  the  enemy's  vital  point  than  do  all  the 
instruments  of  public  speech  exist  for  the  sake  of  its 
effective  delivery.  You  cannot  over-estimate  this  truth. 
The  hour  of  delivery  is  the  "  supreme,  inevitable  hour  " 
for  the  orator.  It  is  this  fact  that  makes  lack  of  ade- 
i47 


148 


DELIVERY 


quate  preparation  such  an  impertinence.  And  it  is  this 
that  sends  such  thrills  of  indescribable  joy  through  the 
orator's  whole  being  when  he  has  achieved  a  success  — 
it  is  like  the  mother  forgetting  her  pangs  for  the  joy  of 
bringing  a  son  into  the  world. 


CHAPTER  XIX 


HELPS  AND  HINDRANCES  IN  THE  AUDIENCE 

Eloquence  is  in  the  assembly,  not  merely  in  the  speaker. 

—  William  Pitt. 

The  orator  speaks  not  only  to  his  auditors,  but  for 
them  as  well.  Therefore  let  him  study  them :  to  know 
what  manner  of  men  they  are,  where  lies  the  way  to 
their  hearts,  how  the  strongholds  of  their  approval  may 
best  be  taken,  —  in  short,  how  to  attract  and  hold  them. 

There  is  not  an  hour  in  all  his  preparation  when  the 
speaker  dare  lose  sight  of  his  audience.  They  must 
ever  sit  before  him,  with  all  their  helping  and  hindering 
habits;  so  that,  when  at  last  he  comes  to  face  them, 
they  shall  not  seem  strangers,  even  though  he  has  never 
seen  a  single  man  of  them  before. 

Whom  are  you  to  talk  to  ?  Forecast  the  answer  as 
fully  as  you  can.  There  is  much  to  be  found  out  with- 
out actual  contact  with  an  audience.  What  is  the  nature 
of  public  assemblies  ?  What  characteristics  of  a  success- 
ful speaker  seem  most  to  please  or  arouse  his  hearers  ? 
What  themes  are  listened  to  with  most  eager  interest  ? 
Do  refined  audiences  respond  to  the  same  style  of 
material  and  delivery  as  move  assemblies  of  the  corn- 
HP 


ISO      HELPS  AND  HINDRANCES  IN  THE  AUDIENCE 

mon  people  ?  What  conditions  and  circumstances  seem 
to  affect  the  mood  of  an  audience  ? 

Audiences  differ  quite  as  widely  as  authors'  themes, 
so  why  should  the  speaker  think  to  handle  the  one  with- 
out thought  when  he  bestows  such  care  upon  the  other  ? 
Some  of  the  greatest  platform  successes  have  been  made 
by  this  nice  appreciation  of  what  is  due  an  audience, 
both  in  extemporaneous  and  in  written  effort;  while 
many  brilliant  speakers  have  failed  because  of  a  mis- 
apprehension of  the  spirit  of  those  whom  they  were 
addressing  or  about  to  address.  It  is  a  problem  of 
adjusting  means  to  ends,  of  knowing  human  nature,  and 
of  saying  the  right  word  at  the  right  time. 

Abraham  Lincoln  once  said :  "  I  always  assume  that 
my  audiences  are  in  many  things  wiser  than  I  am,  and 
I  say  the  most  sensible  thing  I  can  to  them.  I  never 
found  that  they  did  not  understand  me." 

This  great  man's  biographers  assert  that  he  strove  to 
establish  an  alliance  with  his  hearers  —  he  never  talked 
at  them,  but  with  them.  Most  audiences  are  not  un- 
friendly, but  apathetic.  They  stand  an  immense  amount 
of  nonsense  before  they  get  up  (with  creaking  boots) 
and  impressively  retire.  Seldom  do  auditors  speak  out 
so  frankly  as  did  a  little  chap  whom  the  author  once 
knew.  A  tedious  speaker  had  long  been  droning  through 
a  Sunday-school  address,  when  the  lad  impatiently  called 
out  to  the  superintendent,  "  Oh  pshaw,  let's  sing  number 
thirty-six ! "  It  served  the  speaker  right.  He  should 
have  suited  his  preparation  to  his  audience.  Pericles 


HELPS  AND  HINDRANCES  IN  THE  AUDIENCE  151 

had  so  much  respect  for  his  hearers  that  before  address- 
ing them  he  prayed  to  the  gods  that  he  might  utter  no 
words  unsuited  to  the  auditors  or  to  the  occasion.  Once 
he  was  heard  to  say  to  himself,  "  Remember,  Pericles, 
that  thou  art  going  to  speak  to  men  born  in  the  arms  of 
liberty,  to  Greeks,  to  Athenians." 

While  a  common-sense  forecast  will  do  much,  it  will 
not  supply  a  want  of  tact  when  once  the  speaker  stands 
upon  the  rostrum.  Macaulay  says,  "  There  is  a  certain 
tact,  resembling  an  instinct,  which  is  often  wanting  in 
great  orators  and  philosophers."  This  statement  is  too 
strong.  Rarely  does  an  orator  become  great  without  a 
large  natural  endowment  of  tact,  greatly  strengthened, 
no  doubt,  by  a  varied  experience  with  the  vagaries  of 
public  assemblies.  Occasionally  such  embarrassing  cir- 
cumstances may  confront  a  speaker  as  to  leave  him  no 
leg  to  stand  on,  if  his  tact  does  not  come  to  the  rescue. 
He  may  have  resolved  never  to  "rub  the  face  of  an 
audience  the  wrong  way,"  but  causes  beyond  his  control 
sometimes  knock  his  best-laid  plans  into  chaos. 

During  the  Civil  War,  Henry  Ward  Beecher  handled 
a  turbulent  audience  in  Liverpool  with  consummate 
skill  and  tact.  The  many  sympathizers  with  secession 
raised  such  an  uproar  that  he  could  scarcely  proceed. 
See  how  in  his  introduction  he  met  the  exigency :  — 

"  Now,  personally,  it  is  a  matter  of  very  little  conse- 
quence to  me  whether  I  speak  here  to-night  or  not. 
[Laughter  and  cheers.]  But,  one  thing  is  very  certain, 
if  you  do  permit  me  to  speak  here  to-night,  you  will 


152      HELPS  AND  HINDRANCES  IN  THE  AUDIENCE 

hear  very  plain  talking.  [Applause  and  hisses.]  You 
will  find  a  man —  [interruption]  — you  will  not  find  me 
a  man  that  dared  to  speak  about  Great  Britain  three 
thousand  miles  off,  and  then  is  afraid  to  speak  to  Great 
Britain  when  he  stands  on  her  shores.  [Immense  ap- 
plause and  hisses.]  And  if  I  do  not  mistake  the  tone 
and  temper  of  Englishmen,  they  had  rather  have  a  man 
who  opposes  them  in  a  manly  way  —  [applause  from  all 
parts  of  the  hall]  —  than  a  sneak  that  agrees  with  them 
in  an  unmanly  way.  [Applause  and  '  Bravo ! ']  Now, 
if  I  can  carry  you  with  me  by  sound  convictions,  I  shall 
be  immensely  glad  —  [applause]  ;  but  if  I  cannot  carry 
you  with  me  by  facts  and  sound  arguments,  I  do  not 
wish  you  to  go  with  me  at  all ;  and  all  that  I  ask  is 
simply  Fair  Play.  [Applause,  and  a  voice:  'You  shall 
have  it,  too.']" 

In  his  epigrammatic  style  Nathan  Sheppard  says : 
"  It  is  always  pleasant  to  speak  to  a  Scotch  audience. 
They  always  understand  you.  If  you  have  a  point 
they  see  it,  and  if  you  have  not  a  point  they  see  that." 
Scotch  audiences  are  not  singular  in  possessing  that 
discerning  characteristic.  The  American  audience  is 
keenly  alive  to  a  good  point,  —  though  not  very  free 
in  demonstrating  its  satisfaction,  —  and  equally  quick  to 
rebuke  the  first  sign  of  trickery,  cajolery,  or  lack  of 
frankness  in  a  speaker,  by  an  ominous  withdrawal  of 
its  sympathies. 

Professor  Phelps  so  far  confirms  Macaulay's  remarks 
on  the  lack  of  tact  in  great  orators,  as  to  relate  of 


HELPS  AND  HINDRANCES  IN  THE  AUDIENCE       1 53 

Patrick  Henry  that  once  he  thought  to  win  the  favor 
of  the  backwoodsmen  of  Virginia  by  thus  imitating 
their  colloquial  dialect :  "  All  the  larnin  upon  the  yairth 
are  not  to  be  compared  with  naiteral  pairts."  But  his 
sagacious  hearers  knew  that  he  knew  better,  and  re- 
sented the  imputation  that  they  did  not. 

There  is  no  finer  opportunity  for  the  display  of  tact 
than  in  the  introduction  of  wit  and  humor  into  a  dis- 
course. Wit  is  keen  and  like  a  rapier,  piercing  deeply, 
sometimes  even  to  the  heart.  Humor  is  good-natured, 
and  does  not  wound.  Wit  is  founded  upon  the  sudden 
discovery  of  an  unsuspected  relation  existing  between 
two  ideas.  Humor  deals  with  things  out  of  relation, — 
with  the  incongruous.  It  was  wit  in  Douglass  Jerrold 
thus  to  retort  upon  the  scowl  of  a  stranger  whose 
shoulder  he  had  familiarly  slapped,  mistaking  him  for 
a  friend :  "  I  beg  your  pardon,  I  thought  I  knew  you — 
but  I'm  glad  I  don't."  It  was  humor  in  a  Southern 
orator  to  liken  the  pleasure  of  spending  an  evening 
with  a  Puritan  girl  to  that  of  sitting  on  a  block  of  ice  in 
winter,  cracking  hailstones  between  his  teeth. 

Times  without  number  a  witty  retort  or,  better  still, 
a  brief  humorous  illustration  has  tided  the  speaker  over 
a  critical  period  of  embarrassment  and  impending  failure. 

Whether  tact  may  be  acquired  by  those  who  utterly 
lack  it  is  a  question  by  no  means  germane  to  this  trea- 
tise. But  since  alertness  of  mind  and  self-possession 
are  its  marked  characteristics,  it  certainly  may  be 
strengthened  by  observation  and  experience. 


CHAPTER  XX 


FACING  THE  AUDIENCE 

The  effective  public  speaker  receives  from  his  audience  in  vapor 
what  he  pours  back  on  them  in  a  flood.  —  Gladstone. 

Public  speakers  of  long  experience  have  said  that 
they  never  face  an  audience  without  undergoing  that 
painful  discomposure  called  stage  fright. 

I.  Just  before  Speaking 

is  a  critical  moment.  Scores  of  methods  for  inducing 
repose  of  mind  and  body  have  been  suggested,  but  be- 
yond the  ideas  touched  upon  in  Chapter  XV,  Section  2, 
of  this  volume  (which  see),  only  one  word  of  advice  will 
be  attempted :  Maintain  your  confidence.  If  you  have 
made  faithful,  intelligent  preparation,  you  know  more 
of  your  phase  of  the  subject  than  any  one  in  your  audi- 
ence is  likely  to  know.  If  you  are  speaking  from  a 
sense  of  duty,  go  forward  as  to  a  duty.  If  you  have 
committed  all  or  part  of  the  address  to  memory  (and 
committing  to  memory  means  handing  a  thing  over  to 
the  memory),  you  must  not  bear  the  burden  too  heavily 
upon  your  spirit.  Be  confident  by  a  supreme  effort  of 
the  will.  Be  confident  because  of  reliance  upon  pre- 
iS4 — '  " 


FACING  THE  AUDIENCE 


155 


paratory  effort,  upon  the  teachings  of  experience,  upon 
the  good  sense  of  your  audience,  upon  your  ability  to 
hold  yourself  in  hand.  This  is  not  advising  presump- 
tion. Far  from  it.  It  is  simply  urging  the  importance 
of  asserting  your  nerve  as  determinedly  before  speaking 
as  you  would  before  going  to  the  dentist.  No  better 
advice  than  the  foregoing  could  apply  also  to 

2.   The  First  Moments  of  Delivery 

An  audience  yields  everything  to  a  firm  and  confident 
speaker.  Even  when  you  are  quaking  in  your  boots 
with  the  ague  of  feaf^ancTyour  teeth  fain  would  beat 
"retreat,"  you  must  assume  s  boldness  you  do  not  feel../ 
For  doing  this  there  is  nothing  like  deep,  steady  breath- 
ing, a  firm  look  at  the  dreaded  audience,  and  —  if  you 
are  not  caught  at  it  —  a  clenched  fist.  But  do  not  fear 
your  auditors.  They  want  you  to  succeed,  and  always 
honor  an  exhibition  of  pluck.  They  are  fair,  and  know 
that  you  are  only  one  man  against  a  thousand.  In  these 
climes  audiences  do  not  eat  the  //r-prandial  orator  after 
hearing  his  discourse.  Besides,  if  you  are  half  so  bad 
as  at  that  moment  you  feel  yourself  to  be,  you  are  not 
good  enough  to  eat.  Look  at  your  audience,  squarely, 
earnestly,  expressively.  Why  do  so  many  men  denounce 
big  hats  if  they  do  not  wish  to  catch  the  eloquent  gleam 
of  the  orator's  eye  ?  The  habit  of  looking  at  the  walls 
or  the  ceiling  during  delivery  robs  the  orator  of  much  of 
his  power.  Mirabeau  used  to  transfix  his  auditors  by 
the  intensity  of  his  gaze,  and  though  he  crossed  their 


156 


FACING  THE  AUDIENCE 


dearest  purposes,  they  dared  not  lift  a  finger  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  flood  of  his  eloquence. 

Will  to  be  self-controlled  if  you  cannot  be  calm.  The 
audience  is  not  whirling  madly  in  a  circle,  there  are  only 
the  usual  number  of  lights,  the  rostrum  is  not  heaving, 
Niagara  is  not  roaring  beside  you.  No!  Put  these 
phantasms  down  by  will-power.  No  one  who  has  not 
experienced  it  can  imagine  the  terrors  of  stage  fright; 
but  no  one  who  has  not  cultivated  it  can  understand 
the  power  of  the  human  will. 

The  true  nature  of  the  introductory  sentences  has 
been  dwelt  upon  in  a  previous  chapter.1  A  firm  grip 
upon  the  opening  words  is  necessary,  so  that  you  could 
repeat  them  even  if  the  roof  should  collapse.  Begin  at 
a  moderate  pitch,  in  a  moderate  tone,  and  do  not  let 
yourself  get  too  fiery  in  the  introduction.  You  will  need 
some  of  that  fire  in  five  minutes.  This  much  of  Dr. 
Leif child's  rule  is  good  :  — 

Begin  low, 
Go  on  slow; 
Rise  higher, 
And  take  fire. 

It  is  related  of  the  second  Henry  Grattan  that  he 
"  could  not  utter  a  half-dozen  sentences  without  getting 
into  such  a  passion  and  indulging  in  such  violence  of 
gesture  that  it  was  quite  unsafe  for  any  member  to  sit 
within  reach  of  his  right  arm." 

1  See  pp.  76-78. 


FACING  THE  AUDIENCE 


157 


3.   The  Course  of  Delivery 

Excess  of  feeling  at  the  outstart  must  be  checked,  not 
choked.  It  is  just  as  offensive  for  a  speaker  to  go  to 
sleep  on  his  feet,  as  for  him  to  rant.  Indeed,  ranting 
is  the  lesser  of  the  two  evils.  The  same  vital  power  of 
will  which  keeps  emotion  within  bounds  will  serve  to 
call  it  forth  when  needed.  It  is  not  necessary  to  argue 
the  psychological  question  of  whether  emotion  can  be 
made,  nor  is  it  needful  to  study  the  actor's  tricky  in 
simulating  emotion  ;  it  is  sufficient  to  know  that  you  can 
arouse  yourself  from  torpor  on  the  platform,  that  you 
can  get  into  sympathy  with  your  theme,  that  you  can 
make  yourself  feel  anything  on  which  you  think  intently 
enough,  from  a  creeping  chill  to  hot  indignation.  Just 
now,  while  you  are  reading,  you  can  taste  the  sour  of 
acid  on  the  tip  of  your  tongue,  feel  an  itching  on  your 
left  shoulder-blade,  or  a  tickling  in  your  throat  —  if  you 
will  to  do  so. 

This  excitation  of  the  emotions  for  oratorical  purposes 
may  be  cultivated.  Artificiality !  sneers  some  one. 
Trickery  !  complains  another.  "  Stale  indignation,  and 
fervor  a  week  old  !  "  laughs  Sidney  Smith.  All  wrong. 
It  is  physical  earnestness.  It  is  a  legitimate  calling 
upon  the  body  to  be  what  it  was  created  to  be :  the 
instrument  of  the  soul,  responsive  to  its  moods  and 
tenses.  "  He  who  reigns  within  himself  and  rules  his 
passions,  desires,  and  fears,  is  more  than  a  king."  1  He 

1  Milton. 


1 58 


FACING  THE  AUDIENCE 


is  an  orator.  You  would  not  think  of  condoling  with  a 
bereaved  friend  in  a  harsh,  unfeeling  tone.  Even  if  you 
had  a  headache  or  were  pre-occupied,  you  would  command 
the  delicately  sympathetic  word  and  tone.  This  is  not 
hypocrisy,  it  is  common  decency.  And  so  in  public 
speech  you  must  be  so  responsive  to  your  thought  that 
emotion  will  arise  when  needed.  Take  your  message 
to  heart  —  you  can  if  you  have  prepared  with  sincerity 
and  conviction.  Make  the  cause  for  emotion  in  your 
discourse  a  personal  cause,  and  it  will  call  forth  your 
own  emotions. 

Never  think  for  a  moment  that  effective  oratory  can 
be  an  accident.  Certainly  the  inspiration  of  delivery 
will  often  carry  the  orator  beyond  himself,  and  give  his 
discourse  a  sweep  and  power  as  unpremeditated  as  it  is 
convincing.  But  just  as  certainly  such  eloquence  could 
not  be  attained  had  the  orator  failed  to  call  into  play  — 
notice,  call  into  play  —  all  his  powers  of  body,  mind,  and 
spirit.  Holyoake  relates  of  Shiel,  the  little  Irish  orator, 
that  when  he  replied  in  the  House  of  Commons  to  the 
Duke  of  Wellington,  who  had  said  that  the  Irish  were 
aliens  in  race,  blood,  and  religion,  "  his  accents  were  in 
his  hair,  his  eyes,  in  his  arms,  in  every  limb.  He  was 
alive  all  over,  and  from  this  confluence  of  action  pro- 
ceeded a  piercing  stream  of  sentences  of  scorn  and  fire."1 

The  annals  of  oratory  abound  in  instances  of  great 
speakers  who  made  the  most  of  their  physical  endow- 
ment, and  of  many  who,  by  sheer  force  of  determination, 

1  Public  Speaking  and  Debate,  p.  245. 


FACING  THE  AUDIENCE 


159 


won  in  spite  of  the  handicap  of  diminutive  body,  squeak- 
ing voice,  lisping  tongue,  or  sluggish  blood. 

How  do  you  clench  your  hand  for  a  fist  gesture  —  so 
weakly  that  it  would  not  hurt  a  child  ?  Or  do  you  throw 
your  whole  muscular  organization  into  that  clenched  fist  ? 
How  do  you  set  your  teeth  in  speaking  of  determination  ? 
Does  your  eye  fade  or  flash  when  you  press  home  your 
point  ?  Does  your  voice  ring  or  falter  in  direct  appeal  ? 
Naturalness,  ease,  dignity,  variety,  elasticity,  quickness, 
—  these  are  the  expressions  of  a  body  vitalized  and  made 
responsive  to  the  inmeT'mail.  "  "* 

What  is  true  of  physical  earnestness  is  true  of  manner 
in  delivery.  Does  the  thought  require  the  f  amiliarity  of 
colloquial  expression,  the  directness  of  appeal,  the  dignity 
of  elevated  mood,  or  the  fervor  of  passion  ?  Then  rely 
upon  the  will  in  delivery.  Are  you,  like  Sir  Henry 
Irving  and  uncounted  others,  the  victim  of  offensive 
mannerisms  ?  Simply  stop  them  by  thinking  and  willing. 
Do  not  lose  the  kind  offices  of  so  good  a  friend  as  your 
will  by  lack  of  acquaintance  with  its  power  to  do  you 
good. 

No  more  wise  advice  regarding  delivery  was  ever 
given  public  speaker  than  that  offered  by  Hamlet  to  the 
players. 

"  Nor  do  not  saw  the  air  too  much  with  your  hand, 
thus  ;  but  use  all  gently ;  for  in  the  very  torrent,  tempest, 
and  (as  I  may  say)  whirlwind  of  your  passion,  you  must 
acquire  and  beget  a  temperance,  that  may  give  it  smooth- 
ness.   O,  it  offends  me  to  the  soul,  to  hear  a  robustious 


l6o  FACING  THE  AUDIENCE 

periwig-pated  fellow  tear  a  passion  to  tatters,  to  very 
rags,  to  split  the  ears  of  the  groundlings ; 1  who,  for  the 
most  part,  are  capable  of  nothing  but  inexplicable  dumb 
show,  and  noise.  I  would  have  such  a  fellow  whipped 
for  o'er-doing  Termagant;  it  out-herods  Herod.  Pray 
you  avoid  it. 

"  Be  not  too  tame,  neither,  but  let  your  discretion  be 
your  tutor :  suit  the  action  to  the  word,  the  word  to  the 
action ;  with  this  special  observance,  that  you  o'erstep 
not  the  modesty  of  nature  ;  for  anything  so  overdone  is 
from  the  purpose  of  playing,  whose  end,  both  at  the 
first,  and  now,  was,  and  is,  to  hold,  as  'twere,  the  mirror 
up  to  Nature,  to  show  Virtue  her  own  feature,  Scorn 
her  own  image,  and  the  very  age  and  body  of  the  time 
his  form  and  pressure.  Now,  this  overdone,  or  come 
tardy  off,  though  it  make  the  unskillful  laugh,  cannot 
but  make  the  judicious  grieve  ;  the  censure  of  the  which 
one  must,  in  your  allowance,  o'erweigh  a  whole  theater 
of  others.  Oh,  there  be  players  that  I  have  seen  play  — 
and  heard  others  praise,  and  that  highly  —  not  to  speak 
it  profanely,  that,  neither  having  the  accent  of  Chris- 
tians, nor  the  gait  of  Christian,  pagan,  or  man,  have  so 
strutted  and  bellowed  that  I  have  thought  some  of 
Nature's  journeymen  had  made  men,  and  not  made 
them  well,  they  imitated  humanity  so  abominably."  2 

4.  Ending  the  Discourse 

The  thoughts  and  examples  presented  in  section  4  of 
Chapter  XI.  will  be  of  value  here.    The  peroration  must 

1  Auditors  on  the  ground  floor,  3  Hamlet,  Act  III.  Scene  2. 


FACING  THE  AUDIENCE 


161 


fittingly  end  the  discourse.  Happy  are  you  if  it  shall 
be  said  of  you,  in  the  words  of  "rare  Ben  Jonson,"  "The 
fear  of  every  man  that  heard  him  was  lest  he  should 
make  an  end."  How  often  is  the  fear  quite  of  an  oppo- 
site sort.  Few  speakers  discern  that  length  does  not 
indicate  depth.  Better  stop  before  you  are  through 
than  go  on  after  you  have  finished.  Only  makers  of 
short  speeches  are  invited  to  speak  again.  We  have  all 
heard  speakers  who  were  manifestly  in  the  predicament 
of  the  lad  who,  having  unwisely  grabbed  a  dog  by  the 
tail,  was  afraid  of  the  consequences  should  he  relax  his 
grip,  so  he  called  out  to  his  comrades,  "  Some  one  o' 
youse  fellers  come  out  here  and  help  me  let  go !  " 

Uncommon  sense  will  be  found  the  best  teacher  in  all 
such  difficulties. 

Matthew  Arnold,  in  many  aspects  of  his  mind  a  mod- 
ern Greek,  used  to  emphasize  the  Greek  idea  of  unity  of 
effect.  He  complained  that  many  writers  were  so 
engrossed  with  perfecting  the  sentence,  the  figure  of 
speech,  the  detached  idea,  that  they  lost  out  of  their 
sight  the  object  of  leaving  upon  the  mind  a  single,  com- 
pact effect  of  the  whole.  Quite  the  same  is  true  of 
orators.  If  the  progress  of  the  discourse  has  in  any 
wise  failed  —  oh,  sad  failure  !  —  to  keep  clearly  before 
the  auditor  the  grand  movement  of  thought,  by  no 
means  neglect  leaving  in  the  conclusion  a  final  compact 
impression  by  summary  and  enforced  teaching. 


CHAPTER  XXI 


DO'S  AND  DONT'S  FOR  DISCOURSE  — HINTS  FOR  SELF- 
CRITICISM 

To  thine  own  self  be  true. 

—  Shakespeare,  Hamlet,  Act  I.  Scene  3. 

Speak  with  such  simplicity  that  your  humblest  auditor 
must  understand  you.  Winston  Churchill  declares  in 
The  Crisis :  "  The  importance  of  plain  talk  can't  be 
overestimated.  Any  thought,  however  abstruse,  can 
be  put  in  speech  that  a  boy  or  negro  can  grasp." 

Be  explicit ;  speak  things  that  mean  something,  and 
mean  them  when  you  speak. 

Be  brief.    Pope  wrote  of  his  great  master :  — 

"  E'en  copious  Dryden  wanted  or  forgot 
The  last  and  greatest  art,  the  art  to  blot." 

—  Essay  on  Criticism. 

If  you  are  in  doubt  as  to  the  clearness  of  a  thought, 
write  it  out  and  read  it  to  the  hired  girl. 


If  you  would  convince  your  hearers,  pin  them  down 
to  your  view  of  the  question. 

162 


HINTS  FOR  SELF-CRITICISM  163 

Don't  leave  the  highway  of  your  thought  to  chase  a 
butterfly,  be  it  never  so  beautiful.  Macaulay  said  of 
Burke  that  he  "  almost  always  deserted  his  subject  be- 
fore he  was  abandoned  by  his  audience." 

Henry  Ward  Beecher  said  that  "  The  secret  of  elo- 
quence is  truth." 

If  you  would  be  eloquent,  study  the  tastes  of  your 
hearers.    To  Juliet, 

"  Every  tongue  that  speaks 
But  Romeo's  name,  speaks  heavenly  eloquence." 

—  Romeo  and  Juliet,  Act  III.  Scene  2. 

Don't  be  carried  away  by  applause,  it  is  "  the  spur  of 
able  minds,  and  the  aim  of  weak  ones." 

Don't  be  disconcerted  if  an  American  audience  is 
cold.    With  Theseus  confidently  say  :  — 

a  Out  of  this  silence,  yet,  I  pick'd  a  welcome." 

—  Midsummer  Night's  Drea?n,  Act  V.  Scene  1. 

When  the  object  of  your  discourse  is  emotional,  use 
different  means  to  attain  it  than  when  your  object 
is  intellectual. 

Don't  arouse  an  emotion  —  either  in  yourself  or  in 
your  auditors  —  which  you  are  unable  to  direct. 

Don't  mistake  bathos  for  pathos. 

To  stand  erect,  grasp  your  scalp  lock  and  pull 
straight  up,  drawing  your  chin  in. 


i64 


HINTS  FOR  SELF-CRITICISM 


Don't  bow  as  though  you  had  hinges  in  your  neck. 

Look  in  the  direction  of  a  locative  gesture,  but  not  in 
the  direction  of  a  gesture  for  emphasis. 

Don't  let  your  voice  become  inaudible  toward  the 
close  of  a  word  or  of  a  sentence. 

Nathan  Sheppard  gives  this  advice  for  the  care  of  the 
throat :  "  If  you  awake  in  the  night  and  find  your  mouth 
open,  get  up  and  shut  it." 

Don't  seek  after  novelty.    Carlyle  says :  — 

"  The  merit  of  originality  is  not  novelty,  it  is  sincerity." 

—  The  Hero  as  a  Priest. 

Don't  permit  the  skeleton  of  your  address  to  parade 
its  bones.  Clothe  it  with  flesh  so  vital  that  it  would 
bleed  at  the  prick  of  a  needle. 

Don't  think  that  any  amount  of  talent  can  atone  for 
habitual  lack  of  preparation.  Milton  conceived  Para- 
dise Lost  at  thirty-two,  but  did  not  compose  it  until  he 
had  added,  by  twenty  years  of  further  preparation,  to 
his  already  well-stored  mind. 

In  A  Summer  Hymnal,  John  Trotwood  Moore  says : 
"  If  brain- workers  would  only  do  like  cows,  —  gather  up 
their  material  as  they  walk  around  in  the  fields  and 
woods  and  assimilate  it  while  resting,  —  they  would 
have  more  brains." 

Learn  to  think  in  good  English  and  practice  your 
vocabulary  in  conversation. 


HINTS  FOR  SELF-CRITICISM  1 6$ 

Rarely  permit  yourself  to  indulge  in  impromptu 
speech.    Lowell  makes  one  of  his  characters  say  :  — 

u  I  made  the  follerin'  observation 
Extrump'ry,  like  most  other  tri'ls  o'  patience." 

—  Biglow  Papers. 

Don't  wait  to  dive  for  pearls  of  thought  until  you 
mount  the  platform.  It  might  be  painful  to  the 
audience. 

Don't  write  too  soon  after  getting  a  new  thought ;  let 
it  work. 

Thomas  Wentworth  Higginson  thus  advises  speakers  : 
"  Plan  for  one  good  fact  and  one  good  illustration  under 
each  head  of  your  subject." 

Don't  be  afraid  to  apologize  if  you  must. 

Shenstone  compared  long  sentences  in  a  short  address 
to  large  rooms  in  a  small  house. 

Don't  let  your  words  be  bigger  than  your  ideas. 

Don't  let  your  personality  overtop  the  importance  of 
your  subject. 


APPENDICES 


I  succeeded  in  Parliament  by  resolving  to  succeed. 

—  Lord  Chesterfield. 

Sweat  of  the  brow,  and  up  from  that  to  sweat  of  the  brain  ;  sweat 
of  the  heart,  up  to  that  "  agony  of  bloody  sweat,"  which  all  men 
have  called  divine  !  Oh,  brother,  .  .  .  this  is  the  noblest  thing  yet 
discovered  under  God's  sky.  — Thomas  Carlyle. 

The  longer  I  live,  the  more  I  am  certain  that  the  great  difference 
between  men  —  between  the  feeble  and  the  powerful,  the  great  and 
the  insignificant  —  is  energy,  invincible  determination,  a  purpose 
once  fixed,  and  then,  death  or  victory'.  That  quality  will  do  any- 
thing that  can  be  done  in  this  world ;  and  no  talents,  no  circum- 
stances, no  opportunities,  will  make  a  two-legged  creature  a  man 
without  it.  —  Sir  Fowell  Buxton. 


APPENDICES 

THE  STUDY  OF  ORATORICAL  MODELS 

Whatever  is  valuable  in  oratorical  theory  has  been 
arrived  at  by  observing  the  lives,  characters,  and  meth- 
ods of  successful  orators.  Hence  it  is  evident  that  a 
critical  examination  of  famous  orations  must  be  of 
unusual  service  to  all  who  aspire  to  attract  and  hold 
audiences.  It  is  far  more  important  for  the  orator  to 
determine  by  what  means  great  speakers  have  over- 
come difficulties  and  commanded  "the  applause  of  lis- 
tening Senates,"  than  it  is  to  make  up  a  list  of  fancied 
characteristics  which  "the  ideal  orator"  possesses.  The 
problem  may  be  quite  simply  stated,  if  not  easily  an- 
swered :  What  lessons  from  the  practice  of  great  orators 
may  I  learn  and  apply  to  my  own  case  ? 

The  method  of  study  suggested  is  that  of  analysis. 
In  examining  oratorical  models  attention  should  be  given 
to  the  following  lines  of  inquiry  :  — 

I.  Biography. 

1.  Natural  talents  and  natural  defects. 

2.  Facts  in  the  orator's  life  that  tended  to  make 

him  a  great  speaker. 

169 


i7o 


APPENDICES 


II.  Orations. 

1.  Circumstances  of  delivery. 

2.  Object  of  the  speaker. 

3.  General  style  of  the  discourse. 

4.  Logical  structure. 

5.  Rhetorical  structure. 

6.  Comparison  with  orations  of  other  speakers. 

To  assist  in  the  study  of  oratorical  models,  Appendix 
A  and  Appendix  B  have  been  prepared.  The  practice 
of  analyzing  the  structure  of  notable  discourses  will 
yield  large  returns  to  the  student,  especially  an  in- 
creased facility  in  constructing  his  own  oration  frame- 
work. The  outlines1  presented  in  Appendix  A  may 
serve  as  models,  either  for  analysis  or  for  constructive 
work.  Attention  is  called  to  the  discussions  found  in 
Chapters  IX.,  X.,  and  XI.  of  this  treatise. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  include  in  these  pages  bio- 
graphical material  regarding  orators  —  that  is  to  be 
found  in  any  complete  encyclopedia,  and  well  deserves 
careful  study ;  but  in  Appendix  B  there  are  given  a 
number  of  great  orations,  upon  a  diversity  of  themes, 
of  varied  kinds,  and  by  well-known  speakers.  In  most 
instances  the  orations  have  been  abbreviated  so  as  to 
present  only  such  parts  as  are  most  characteristic  of 
the  orator  and  most  worthy  of  careful  study.  They 
may  also  be  used  for  public  declamations. 

1  For  a  full  discussion  of  the  brief  and  the  outline,  refer  to  Principles 
of  Argumentation,  Baker. 


APPENDIX  A 


MODEL  ORATION  OUTLINES 


PERICLES'  FUNERAL  ORATION  OVER  THE  ATHENIAN 
DEAD,1  430  B.C. 

L  Introduction. 

Words  are  inadequate  to  sound  the  praises  of  the 
brave. 

II.  The  Sources  of  Athenian  Greatness. 

1.  The  deeds  of  noble  ancestors  who  brought  Ath- 

ens to  freedom  and  power. 

2.  The  admirable  form  of  the  Athenian  govern- 

ment. 

3.  The  refinements  of  her  life. 

4.  Her  superiority  in  war. 

5.  The  public  spirit  of  her  citizens. 

6.  In  brief :  Athens  is  the  mother  of  Hellas. 

III.  Eulogy  of  the  Fallen  Heroes. 

1.  The  praise  of  Athens  reflects  upon  her  dead. 

2.  "  Death  is  the  final  seal  of  their  virtues  and  se- 

cures them  from  all  change  of  fortune." 

1  This  oration,  reported  by  Thucydides,  the  Greek  historian,  was  com- 
memorative of  the  Athenian  heroes  who  had  fallen  during  the  first  year  of 
the  Peloponnesian  War. 

171 


172  APPENDIX  A 

3.  Their  praises  have  extended  to  the  whole  earth, 
and  Athens  holds  their  example  as  a  precious 
heritage. 

IV.  Consolations  for  their  Kindred. 

1.  Parents. 

2.  Sons,  brothers,  and  widows. 

V.  Conclusion. 

"Athens  crowns  her  sons"  by  honorably  interring 
them  and  rearing  their  children  "at  the  pub- 
lic charge." 

II 

ORATION  OF  jESCHINES  AGAINST  CTESIPHON,  331  B.C. 

I.  Introduction. 

Existence  of  factions  in  the  state ;  these  lead 
to  illegal  proceedings ;  the  factions  must  be 
stopped. 

II.  The  Proceedings  of  Ctesiphon  as  to  Demos- 
thenes were  Illegal. 

1.  Because  the  law  forbids  a  magistrate  to  be 

crowned  before  the  accounts  of  his  office 
have  been  accepted. 

2.  The  fact  that  Demosthenes  has  expended  his 

own  money  in  the  public  service  does  not 
exempt  him  from  the  law. 

3.  Demosthenes  held  two  offices  at  the  time  Ctesi- 

phon proposed  to  crown  him. 

4.  Ctesiphon  proposed  the  coronation  in  an  ille- 

gal place. 


APPENDIX  A 


173 


III.  Demosthenes  did  not  deserve  this  Honor, 

BECAUSE  OF  

1.  His  private  character. 

2.  His  public  character. 

IV.  Greater  Strictness  should  be  observed  in 

conferring  Public  Honors. 

V.  jEschines  compares  himself  with  Demosthe- 
nes. 

VI.  He  reaffirms  the  Illegality  of  the  Decree 
and  the  unworthiness  of  demosthenes. 

vii.  he  cautions  the  judges  not  to  be  swayed 
by  the  Eloquence  of  Demosthenes,  nor 
by  Friendship  for  him. 

VIII.  Conclusion. 

Ill 

DEMOSTHENES  ON  THE  CROWN,1  330  B.C. 

I.  Introduction. 

1.  Demosthenes  appeals  to  the  gods. 

2.  He  asserts  his  right  to  follow  his  own  order 

of  defense  (which  iEschines  had  opposed). 

II.  He  refutes  the  Accusations  foreign  to  the 
Indictment. 
1.  He  declines  to  consider  the  charges  against 
his  private  life,  but  permits  the  judges,  who 
know  him,  to  decide  upon  their  validity. 


1  This  oration  is  a  reply  to  the  accusations  made  against  Demosthenes 
in  iEschines'  oration  against  Ctesiphon. 


174 


APPENDIX  A 


2.  He  dismisses  the  (foreign)  charges  as  to  his 
public  life  by  referring  to  their  evident  fal- 
sity and  malicious  intent. 

III.  He  refutes  the  Accusations  found  in  the 

Indictment. 

1.  He  reviews   his   public   life  and  measures. 

(Under  nine  heads  he  discusses  his  rela- 
tions with  Philip  of  Macedon,  the  course  he 
—  Demosthenes  —  had  urged  upon  Athens, 
and  various  other  public  measures.) 

2.  He  maintains  the  legality  of  Ctesiphon's  pro- 

posal to  crown  him. 

(a)  He  was  not  responsible  for  his  accounts. 
{b)  This  had  been  acknowledged  by  ^Eschines. 
(c)  The  place  named  was  in  accordance  with 
the  law. 

IV.  He  compares  the  Character  and  Policy  of 

iEsCHINES  WITH   HIS  OWN. 

1.  The  character  of  yEschines. 

2.  The  policy  of  ./Eschines. 

3.  Demosthenes'  policy. 

4.  Further  comparisons  between  himself  and  ^Es- 

chines. 

5.  His  answer  to  the  warning  of  iEschines  as  to 

Demosthenes'  oratory. 

6.  Final  reasons  for  being  crowned. 

(a)  Because  he  had  never  taken  bribes. 
{b)  Because  of  his  policy. 
(c)  Because  of  his  patriotism. 

V.  Conclusion. 


APPENDIX  A 


175 


[David  Hume  says  of  Demosthenes  :  — 

"  His  style  is  rapid  harmony  exactly  adjusted  to  the  sense ;  it  is 
vehement  reasoning,  without  any  appearance  of  art ;  it  is  disdain, 
anger,  boldness,  freedom,  involved  in  a  continuous  argument ;  and 
of  all  human  productions  the  orations  of  Demosthenes  present  to  us 
the  models  which  approach  the  nearest  to  perfection."] 

IV 

WASHINGTON'S  CONTRIBUTION  TO  NATIONALITY1 

I.  His  Personality  was  Preeminent. 

1.  In  molding  the  plastic  elements  of  the  country. 

(a)  The  survivors  of  his  army. 

(&)  The  commercial  and  creditor  classes. 

2.  Over  contemporary  statesmen. 

(a)  Hamilton. 
(&)  Jefferson. 

II.  His  Statesmanship  encouraged  the  Spirit  of 
Nationality. 

1.  By  pacifying  angry  political  factions. 

(a)  In  his  cabinet. 

(J?)  Between  the  English  and  the  French  par- 
ties. 

2.  By  his  foreign  policy  of  neutrality. 

(a)  As  in  England's  quarrel  with  France. 
{b)  Favoring  Jay's  treaty. 

3.  By  arousing  respect  for  his  domestic  policy. 

(a)  Respect  for  the  new  forms  of  government. 
{&)  Respect  for  public  credit  and  for  law. 

4.  By  his  devotion  to  the  Union. 

1  Condensed  from  Composition-Rhetoric,  Scott  and  Denney,  pp.  274,  275. 


i76 


APPENDIX  A 


V 

FOREIGN  IMMIGRATION  SHOULD  BE  RESTRICTED1 

(Note  the  variation  of  cause  and  effect.) 

I.  Fact  as  Cause:  Many  immigrants  are  paupers. 
(A  paragraph  of  proofs  involving  statistics  or 
statements  of  authorities  on  this  point.) 

II.  Fact  as  Effect  :  They  fill  our  alms-houses  and  be- 
come a  public  charge.  (A  paragraph  of  proofs 
involving  statistics  or  statements  of  authorities.) 

III.  Fact  as  Cause  :  Some  of  them  are  criminals.  (A 

paragraph  of  proofs.) 

IV.  Fact  as  Effect  :  They  reenforce  the  criminal 

classes.    (A  paragraph  of  proofs.) 

V.  Fact  as  Cause:  Many  of  them  know  nothing  of 
the  duties  of  free  citizenship.  (A  paragraph  of 
proofs.) 

VI.  Fact  as  Effect:  Such  immigrants  recruit  the 
worst  element  in  our  politics.  (A  paragraph  of 
proofs.) 

VI 

RAILROADS  ARE  A  UNIVERSAL  BENEFIT 

I.  They  promote  Material  Prosperity  : 
i.  By  promoting  commercial  prosperity  — 
(a)  For  they  facilitate  exchanges, 
(£)  And  help  labor  to  migrate. 


1  Composition- Rhetoric,  Scott  and  Denney,  p.  241. 


APPENDIX  A 


177 


2.  By  promoting  physical  prosperity  — 

(a)  For  they  raise  the  standard  of  living, 

(b)  And  furnish  labor  to  the  poor, 

(c)  And  render  wars  improbable. 

II.  They  promote  Social  Prosperity: 

1.  By  promoting  intelligence  — 

(a)  For  they  carry  reading  matter, 
(J?)  And  save  time  for  reading, 
(c)  And  encourage  travel. 

2.  By  promoting  morals  — 

(a)  For  they  arrest  crime, 

(£)  And  make  men  more  broad-minded. 

VII 

ATTENTION 

I.  Introduction. 

Attention  indispensable  to  the  performance  of  any 
great  work. 

II.  Defined  and  Illustrated. 

1.  From  common  observation. 

2.  From  the  lives  of  great  men. 

III.  Its  Relation  to  other  Mental  Powers. 

1.  Reason. 

2.  Will. 

3.  Imagination. 

4.  Memory. 


178  APPENDIX  A 

IV.  Attention  may  be  cultivated. 

1.  Involuntary  attention. 

2.  Voluntary  attention. 

V.  Conclusion. 

The  consequences  of  inattention  and  of  attention. 

VIII 

THE  NORSE  DISCOVERY  OF  AMERICA1 

I.  The  Norse  Medleval  Historians  state  that 
about  iooo  a.d.  certain  norse  sailors 
found,  to  the  southwest  of  Greenland,  a 
Land  which  they  called  Vineland.  This 
Account  is  worthy  of  Credence,  because — 

1.  It  is  given  as  history,  not  as  fiction.    If  the  ac- 

count had  been  imaginative,  the  narrators 
would  probably  have  peopled  the  land  with 
dragons,  unicorns,  and  similar  marvels;  in- 
stead of  which  they  refer  throughout  to 
objects  and  incidents  which  indicate  obser- 
vation rather  than  fancy. 

2.  It  is  related  or  referred  to  in  many  Norse  books 

of  history,  dating  from  900  years  ago  down 
to  the  present. 

1  The  reasoning  is  taken  from  Discovery  of  America,  Fiske,  Vol.  I.  pp. 
148-226;  and  the  brief  follows  that  found  in  Elements  of  Rhetoric  and 
English  Composition,  Carpenter,  pp.  1 1 4- 1 15. 


APPENDIX  A 


179 


II.  It  is  not  Unnatural  that  the  Northmen 
should  have  discovered  the  coast  of 
North  America,  because  — 

1.  They  were  of  a  roving  disposition,  good  seamen, 

and  had  vessels  capable  of  taking  long  voy- 
ages, as  is  shown  by 

{a)  Their  voyages  to  Constantinople  and  the 
White  Sea,  etc., 

(b)  By  the  fact  that  they  had  settled  in  Ice- 

land, and 

(c)  That  they  had  settled  in  Greenland  and 

explored  Baffin  Bay. 

2.  The  settlers  in  Greenland  had  a  motive  in  ex- 

ploring for  and  visiting  new  coasts,  for  the 
sake  of 

{a)  Wood,  which  was  scarce  in  Greenland 
and  Iceland,  and  which  they  needed 
for  shipbuilding ;  and 

(£)  Barter  with  the  natives. 

3.  The  relative  position  of  the  northeastern  coast 

of  North  America  is  such  that  ships  could 
easily  be  driven  there  from  the  vicinity  of 
Greenland  by  northeast  gales  and  currents. 

III.  The  Accounts  given  of  Vineland  obviously 

REFER  TO  THE  NORTH  AMERICAN  COAST, 
BECAUSE  

I.  Vineland  was  said  to  be  southwest  of  Green- 
land, and 


1 80 


APPENDIX  A 


2.  The  statements  regarding  the  character  of  the 
coast,  the  vegetation,  animals,  and  inhabit- 
ants could  apply  only  to  the  American  coast, 
for  the  narrative  speaks  of 

(a)  Shorter  days. 

(b)  Corn. 

(c)  Grapes. 

{d)  Inhabitants  corresponding  accurately  to 
the  Indians. 

IV.  Conclusion. 

.  We  are  justified  in  believing  in  the  Norse  discov- 
ery of  America. 

IX 

HOW  PROSPERITY  CAME 1 

The  country  ripe  for  prosperity.  —  Great  wheat  crop 
in  1897.  —  Importance  of  the  farmer  bringing  good 
times.  —  Effect  of  the  Spanish- American  War  on  the 
new  prosperity.  —  Fortuitous  circumstances  that  assisted. 
—  Increased  gold  production  and  its  results.  —  Compari- 
son of  stores  of  gold  in  the  United  States  with  those  in 
Europe.  —  Extraordinary  increase  in  per  capita  circula- 
tion. —  Compared  with  great  foreign  nations.  —  Con- 
cluding reflections. 

1  This  is  a  summary  of  the  contents  of  Chapter  II.,  Our  New  Prosperity, 
Ray  S.  Baker. 


APPENDIX  A 


181 


X 

A  NATION  OF  CITIES1 

I.  Remarkable  Growth  of  Cities  in  the  United 
States  during  Last  Quarter  Century. 
This  is  due  to 

1.  The  application  of  scientific  methods,  and  of 

machinery,  to  agriculture.    This  drives  many 

men  from  the  farms,  because 

(a)  There  is  a  natural  limit  to  the  demand  for 

farm  products. 
(Jb)  Wages  would  fall  below  the  living  point 

were  all  the  laborers  to  remain,  since 

fewer  men  can  now  do  an  increased 

amount  of  work. 
(c)  Many  men  can  find  employment  on  the 

farms  at  only  the  harvest  season. 

2.  The  substitution  of  mechanical  for  muscular 

power  in  manufactures  draws  many  laborers 
to  the  cities. 

(a)  Labor  is  made  lighter. 
(J?)  Women  and  children  find  employment. 
(c)  Unskilled  laborers  earn  more  than  they 
could  by  mere  manual  labor. 

3.  The  railway  has  made  the  city  easily  accessible 

(a)  To  those  seeking  employment, 

(b)  To  buyers,  and 

(c)  This  gives  employment  to  more  producers 

and  sellers. 

1  Suggested  by  Chapter  II.,  The  Twentieth  Century  City,  Strong. 


APPENDIX  A 


4.  The  life  of  the  city  is  attractive  to  those  bred  in 
the  country,  and  affords  opportunities  for  ad- 
vancement. 

II.  This  Remarkable  Growth  gives  rise  to  Grave 
Problems. 

(Here  the  brief  might  be  indefinitely  expanded  by  a  discussion 
of  the  various  problems.) 

1.  Our  country  has  shown  a  masterful  spirit  in 

solving  great  problems  as  they  have  arisen. 

2.  We  may  confidently  expect  that  these  religious, 

economic,  and  political  problems  will  likewise 
be  satisfactorily  solved. 

XI 

THE  UNITED  STATES  A  CHRISTIAN  NATION 

I.  Introduction:  Why  the  subject  is  timely.  In. 
fluences  operative  against  this  position. 

II.  Consider  the  Fact  that  Christianity  presided 
over  the  Early  History  of  America. 

1.  First  practical  discovery  by  a  Christian  ex- 

plorer. Columbus  worshiped  God  on  the  new 
soil. 

2.  The  Huguenot. 

3.  The  Cavalier. 

4.  The  Puritan. 

III.  The  Birth  of  our  Nation  was  under  Christian 
Auspices. 

1.  Christian  character  of  Washington. 

2.  Other  Christian  patriots. 


APPENDIX  A 


I«3 


IV.  Our  Later  History  has  only  emphasized 
this  Fact. 

V.  Our  Governmental  Forms  and  many  of  our 
Laws  are  of  a  Christian  Temper. 

1.  The  use  of  the  Bible  in  public  ways. 

2.  The  Bible  in  our  public  schools. 

3.  Christian  chaplains  minister  to  our  law-mak- 

ing bodies,  to  our  army,  and  to  our  navy. 

4.  The  Christian  Sabbath  is  officially  and  gen- 

erally recognized. 

5.  The  Christian  family  and  the  Christian  sys- 

tem of  morality  are  at  the  basis  of  our 
laws. 

VI.  The  Life  of  the  People  testifies  of  the 
Power  of  Christianity. 

VII.  Other  Nations  regard  us  as  a  Christian 
People. 

VIII.  Conclusion:  The  attitude  which  may  reason- 
ably be  expected  of  all  good  citizens  toward 
questions  touching  the  preservation  of  our 
standing  as  a  Christian  nation. 

XII 

MANHOOD  AND  MONEY 

Money  does  not  make  the  man.  —  Not  all  men  accept 
this  statement  as  true.  —  Manhood  is  worth  millions,  for 
it  is  constantly  in  demand. — Positions  which  nothing  but 
manhood  can  fill.  —  Manhood  often  tested  by  the  power 
of  money.  —  Examples.  —  False  ideals  held  by  too  many 


1 84 


APPENDIX  A 


with  regard  to  money-making.  —  Manhood  and  money- 
making  not  necessarily  incompatible.  —  Money  will  pass, 
but  manhood  never.  —  The  universal  cry,  in  all  depart- 
ments of  life,  is :  Wanted  —  a  man ! 

XIII 

LOT'S  ESCAPE 1 
I.  An  Alarm,  "  Escape  for  thy  life." 
II.  A  Caution,  "  Look  not  behind  thee." 
III.  An  Exhortation,  "  Escape  to  the  mountain." 

XIV 

A  BLESSED  PARADOX :  AN  EASY  YOKE  AND  A  LIGHT 
BURDEN  2 

I.  A  Service  of  Love. 

II.  An  Assisted  Service. 

III.  A  Service  along  God's  Path. 

IV.  A  Service  of  Hope. 

XV 

THE  POWER  OF  THE  GOSPEL8 

I.  It  is  an  Informing  Power. 

For  it  brings  knowledge  of  momentous  questions 
to  the  individual,  and  spreads  enlightenment 
to  the  whole  earth. 


1 A  sermon  from  Genesis  xix.  17. 
2  A  sermon  from  Matthew  xi.  30. 
8  A  sermon  from  1  Thessalonians  i.  5. 


APPENDIX  A 


185 


II    It  is  a  Reforming  Power. 

For  it  has  formed  anew  the  methods  of  thought, 
government,  and  life  wherever  it  has  been 
preached. 

III.  It  is  a  Transforming  Power. 

For  it  transforms  the  human  heart  from  a  well  of 
evil  to  a  spring  of  sweetness  and  purity. 

IV.  It  is  a  Deforming  Power. 

For  its  enlightening  influence  is  destructive  of 
superstition,  untruth,  and  evil. 

V.  It  is  a  Conforming  Power. 

For  its  end  is  the  conforming  of  the  believer  to 
the  image  of  Christ. 


APPENDIX  B 

MODEL  ORATIONS 

Most  of  the  following  orations  have  been  prefaced 
with  brief  analyses,  for  the  purpose  of  indicating  the 
general  structure  of  the  thought.  In  no  case,  however, 
is  the  outline  so  full  as  to  make  more  minute  analysis 
unprofitable.  Indeed,  no  two  students  are  likely  to 
analyze  an  oration  in  just  the  same  way.  Several  of 
the  discourses  have  been  presented  entirely  free  of 
suggestive  outline. 

I 

THE  AMERICAN  IDEA 

By  Daniel  Webster  (i 782-1852) 

[The  following  selected  passages  are  from  a  commemorative  ora- 
tion delivered  June  17,  1825,  on  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  battle 
of  Bunker  Hill.  Upon  this  occasion  the  cornerstone  of  the  monu- 
ment was  laid.  So  much  of  the  oration  as  can  here  be  given  may 
be  thus  outlined  :  (1)  The  remarkable  nature  of  the  American  Revo- 
lution. (2)  The  advanced  civilization  under  which  the  orator  and 
his  hearers  live.  (3)  Direct  eulogy  of  the  patriots  who  fought  in  the 
battle  of  Bunker  Hill.  (4)  Great  changes  noted  when  the  present 
occasion  is  compared  with  fifty  years  ago.] 

The  great  event  in  the  history  of  the  continent,  which 
we  are  now  met  here  to  commemorate,  —  that  prodigy 
186 


APPENDIX  B 


187 


of  modern  times,  at  once  the  wonder  and  blessing  of  the 
world,  —  is  the  American  Revolution.  In  a  day  of  ex- 
traordinary prosperity  and  happiness,  of  high  national 
honor,  distinction,  and  power,  we  are  brought  together 
in  this  place  by  our  love  of  country,  by  our  admiration 
of  exalted  character,  by  our  gratitude  for  signal  service 
and  patriotic  devotion.  .  .  . 

We  live  in  a  most  extraordinary  age.  Events  so  vari- 
ous and  so  important  that  they  might  crowd  and  distin- 
guish centuries,  are  in  our  times  compressed  within  the 
compass  of  a  single  life.  When  has  it  happened  that 
history  has  had  so  much  to  record,  in  the  same  term  of 
years,  as  since  the  17th  of  June,  1775  ?  Our  own  Revo- 
lution, which  under  other  circumstances  might  itself 
have  been  expected  to  occasion  a  war  of  half  a  century, 
has  been  achieved ;  twenty-four  sovereign  and  indepen- 
dent states  erected ;  and  a  general  government  estab- 
lished over  them,  so  safe,  so  wise,  so  free,  so  practical, 
that  we  might  well  wonder  its  establishment  should  have 
been  accomplished  so  soon,  were  it  not  far  the  greater 
wonder  that  it  should  have  been  established  at  all. 

We  now  stand  here  to  enjoy  all  the  blessings  of  our 
own  condition  and  to  look  abroad  to  the  brightened 
prospects  of  the  world,  while  we  still  hold  among  us 
some  of  those  who  were  active  agents  in  the  scenes  of 
1775,  and  who  are  now  here,  from  every  quarter  of  New 
England,  to  visit  once  more,  and  under  circumstances 
so  affecting,  —  I  had  almost  said  overwhelming,  —  this 
renowned  theatre  of  their  courage  and  patriotism. 

Venerable  men !  you  have  come  down  to  us  from  a 
former  generation.     Heaven  has  bounteously  length- 


1 88 


APPENDIX  B 


ened  out  your  lives,  that  you  might  behold  this  joyous 
day.  You  are  now  where  you  stood  fifty  years  ago, 
this  very  hour,  with  your  brothers  and  your  neighbors, 
shoulder  to  shoulder,  in  the  strife  for  your  country. 
Behold,  how  altered  !  The  same  heavens  are  indeed 
over  your  heads  ;  the  same  ocean  rolls  at  your  feet ; 
but  all  else  how  changed !  You  hear  now  no  roar  of 
hostile  cannon ;  you  see  no  mixed  volumes  of  smoke  and 
flame  rising  from  burning  Charlestown.  The  ground 
strewed  with  the  dead  and  the  dying  ;  the  impetuous 
charge ;  the  steady  and  successful  repulse ;  the  loud 
call  to  repeated  assault ;  the  summoning  of  all  that  is 
manly  to  repeated  resistance ;  a  thousand  bosoms  freely 
and  fearlessly  bared  in  an  instant  to  whatever  of  terror 
there  may  be  in  war  and  death,  —  all  these  you  have 
witnessed,  but  you  witness  them  no  more.  All  is 
peace.  The  heights  of  yonder  metropolis,  its  towers 
and  roofs,  which  you  then  saw  filled  with  wives  and 
children  and  countrymen  in  distress  and  terror,  and 
looking  with  unutterable  emotions  for  the  issue  of  the 
combat,  have  presented  you  to-day  with  the  sight  of 
its  whole  happy  population,  come  out  to  welcome  and 
greet  you  with  a  universal  jubilee.  Yonder  proud  ships, 
by  a  felicity  of  position  appropriately  lying  at  the  foot 
of  this  mount,  and  seeming  fondly  to  cling  around  it, 
are  not  means  of  annoyance  to  you,  but  your  country's 
own  means  of  distinction  and  defense.  All  is  peace  : 
and  God  has  granted  you  this  sight  of  your  country's 
happiness,  ere  you  slumber  in  the  grave.  He  has 
allowed  you  to  behold  and  to  partake  the  reward  of 
your  patriotic  toils  ;  and  He  has  allowed  us,  your  sons 


APPENDIX  B 


and  countrymen,  to  meet  you  here,  and  in  the  name  oi 
the  present  generation,  in  the  name  of  your  country,  ir 
the  name  of  liberty,  to  thank  you  ! 

II 

THE  CHILDREN  OF  THE  POOR 

By  Theodore  Parker  (1810-1860) 

[This  descriptive  excerpt  was  delivered  as  part  of  a  public  lecture 
in  Boston.  It  contains  three  parts  :  (1)  A  description  of  the  pool 
waifs.  (2)  An  appeal  for  sympathy.  (3)  An  argument  for  prison 
reform.] 

If  you  could  know  the  life  of  one  of  those  poor  lepers 
of  Boston,  you  would  wonder  and  weep.  Let  me  take 
one  of  them  at  random  out  of  the  mass.  He  was  born, 
unwelcome,  amid  wretchedness  and  want.  His  coming 
increased  both.  Miserably  he  struggles  through  his  in- 
fancy, less  tended  than  the  lion's  whelp.  He  becomes 
a  boy.  He  is  covered  only  with  rags,  and  those  squalid 
with  long-accumulated  filth.  He  wanders  about  your 
streets,  too  low  even  to  seek  employment,  now  snatching 
from  a  gutter  half-rotten  fruit  which  the  owner  flings 
away.  He  is  ignorant ;  he  has  never  entered  a  school- 
house  ;  to  him  even  the  alphabet  is  a  mystery.  He  is 
young  in  years,  yet  old  in  misery.  There  is  no  hope  in 
his  face.  He  herds  with  others  like  himself,  low,  ragged, 
hungry,  and  idle.  If  misery  loves  company,  he  finds 
that  satisfaction.  Follow  him  to  his  home  at  night ;  he 
herds  in  a  cellar ;  in  the  same  sty  with  father,  mother, 
brothers,  sisters,  and  perhaps  yet  other  families  of  like 


190 


APPENDIX  B 


degree.  What  served  him  for  dress  by  day  is  his  only 
bed  by  night. 

Well,  this  boy  steals  some  trifle,  a  biscuit,  a  bit  of 
rope,  or  a  knife  from  a  shop  window.  He  is  seized 
and  carried  to  jail.  The  day  comes  for  trial.  He  is 
marched  through  the  streets  in  handcuffs,  the  com- 
panion of  drunkards  and  thieves,  thus  deadening  the 
little  self-respect  which  Nature  left  even  in  an  outcast's 
bosom.  He  sits  there  chained  like  a  beast ;  a  boy  in 
irons !  the  sport  and  mockery  of  men  vulgar  as  the 
common  sewer.  His  trial  comes.  Of  course  he  is  con- 
victed. The  show  of  his  countenance  is  witness  against 
him.  His  rags  and  dirt,  his  ignorance,  his  vagrant 
habits,  his  idleness,  all  testify  against  him.  That  face 
so  young,  and  yet  so  impudent,  so  sly,  so  writ  all  over 
with  embryo  villainy,  is  evidence  enough.  The  jury  are 
soon  convinced,  for  they  see  his  temptations  in  his  look, 
and  surely  know  that  in  such  a  condition  men  will  steal : 
yes,  they  themselves  would  steal.  The  judge  represents 
the  law,  and  that  practically  regards  it  a  crime  for  a  boy 
to  be  weak  and  poor.  Much  of  our  common  law,  it 
seems  to  me,  is  based  on  might,  not  right.  So  he  is 
hurried  off  to  jail  at  a  tender  age,  and  made  legally  the 
companion  of  felons.  Now  the  State  has  him  wholly 
in  her  power;  by  that  rough  adoption  has  made  him 
her  own  child,  and  sealed  the  indenture  with  the  jailer's 
key.  His  handcuffs  are  the  symbol  of  his  sonship  to 
the  State.  She  shuts  him  in  her  college  for  the  little. 
What  does  that  teach  him;  science,  letters;  even  morals 
and  religion  ?  Little  enough  of  this,  even  in  Boston, 
and  in  most  counties  of  Massachusetts,  I  think,  nothing 


APPENDIX  B 


IQI 


at  all,  not  even  a  trade  which  he  can  practice  when  his 
term  expires.  I  have  been  told  a  story,  and  I  wish  it 
might  be  falsely  told,  of  a  boy,  in  this  city,  of  sixteen, 
sent  to  the  house  of  correction  for  five  years  because  he 
stole  a  bunch  of  keys,  and  coming  out  of  that  jail  at 
twenty-one,  unable  to  write,  or  read,  or  calculate,  and 
with  no  trade  but  that  of  picking  oakum.  Yet  he  had 
been  five  years  the  child  of  the  State,  and  in  that  col- 
lege for  the  poor !  Who  would  employ  such  a  youth  ; 
with  such  a  reputation;  with  the  smell  of  the  jail  in  his 
very  breath  ?  Not  your  shrewd  men  of  business,  they 
know  the  risk;  not  your  respectable  men,  members  of 
churches  and  all  that ;  not  they !  Why,  it  would  hurt 
a  man's  reputation  for  piety  to  do  good  in  that  way. 
Besides,  the  risk  is  great,  and  it  argues  a  great  deal 
more  Christianity  than  it  is  popular  to  have,  for  a  re- 
spectable man  to  employ  such  a  youth.  He  is  forced 
back  into  crime  again.  I  say,  forced,  for  honest  men 
will  not  employ  him  when  the  State  shoves  him  out 
of  jail.  Soon  you  will  have  him  in  the  court  again,  to 
be  punished  more  severely.  Then  he  goes  to  the  state 
prison,  and  then  again,  and  again,  till  death  mercifully 
ends  his  career ! 


192 


APPENDIX  B 


III 

FREEDOM  OR  SLAVERY 

By  Patrick  Henry  (i  736-1 799) 

[This  famous  deliberative  oration  was  delivered  on  March  23, 
1775,  in  the  Virginia  Convention  of  Delegates.  It  was  a  plea  for 
the  organization  of  the  Virginia  militia.  Patrick  Henry's  complete 
orations  may  be  found  in  his  Life,  Correspondence,  and  Speeches, 
edited  by  William  Wirt  Henry,  New  York. 

The  following  is  a  brief  analysis:  (1)  The  illusions  of  hope. 
(2)  The  value  of  experience.  (3)  The  true  meaning  of  Britain's 
actions.  (4)  The  means  of  reconciliation  exhausted.  (5)  An  appeal 
to  arms  necessary.  (6)  Objections  stated  and  met.  (7)  The  pa- 
triotic decision.] 

Mr.  President,  it  is  natural  to  man  to  indulge  in  the 
illusions  of  hope.  We  are  apt  to  shut  our  eyes  against 
a  painful  truth,  and  listen  to  the  song  of  that  siren, 
till  she  transforms  us  to  beasts.  Is  this  the  part  of 
wise  men,  engaged  in  a  great  and  arduous  struggle  for 
liberty  ?  Are  we  disposed  to  be  of  the  number  of  those 
who,  having  eyes,  see  not,  and  having  ears,  hear  not, 
the  things  which  so  nearly  concern  our  temporal  salva- 
tion ?  For  my  part,  whatever  anguish  of  spirit  it  may 
cost,  I  am  willing  to  know  the  whole  truth ;  to  know 
the  worst,  and  to  provide  for  it. 

I  have  but  one  lamp  by  which  my  feet  are  guided ; 
and  that  is  the  lamp  of  experience.  I  know  of  no  way 
of  judging  of  the  future  but  by  the  past.  And  judging 
by  the  past,  I  wish  to  know  what  there  has  been  in  the 
conduct  of  the  British  Ministry  for  the  last  ten  years  to 
justify  those  hopes  with  which  gentlemen  have  been 


APPENDIX  B 


193 


pleased  to  solace  themselves  and  the  House  ?  Is  it 
that  insidious  smile  with  which  our  petition  has  been 
lately  received  ?  Trust  it  not,  sir ;  it  will  prove  a  snare 
to  your  feet.  Suffer  not  yourselves  to  be  "betrayed 
with  a  kiss  " !  Ask  yourselves,  how  this  gracious  re- 
ception of  our  petition  comports  with  those  warlike 
preparations  which  cover  our  waters  and  darken  our 
land  ?  Are  fleets  and  armies  necessary  to  a  work  of 
love  and  reconciliation  ?  Have  we  shown  ourselves  so 
unwilling  to  be  reconciled,  that  force  must  be  called  in 
to  win  back  our  love  ?  Let  us  not  deceive  ourselves, 
sir.  These  are  the  implements  of  war  and  subjugation, 
the  last  "  arguments  "  to  which  kings  resort. 

I  ask  gentlemen,  sir,  what  means  this  martial  array, 
if  its  purpose  be  not  to  force  us  to  submission  ?  Can 
gentlemen  assign  any  other  possible  motive  for  it? 
Has  Great  Britain  any  enemy  in  this  quarter  of  the 
world,  to  call  for  all  this  accumulation  of  navies  and 
armies  ?  No,  sir,  she  has  none.  They  are  meant  for 
us;  they  can  be  meant  for  no  other.  They  are  sent 
over  to  bind  and  to  rivet  upon  us  those  chains  which  the 
British  Ministry  have  been  so  long  forging.  And  what 
have  we  to  oppose  to  them  ?  Shall  we  try  argument  ? 
Sir,  we  have  been  trying  that  for  the  last  ten  years. 
Have  we  anything  new  to  offer  upon  the  subject? 
Nothing.  We  have  held  the  subject  up  in  every  light 
of  which  it  is  capable ;  but  it  has  been  all  in  vain. 
Shall  we  resort  to  entreaty  and  humble  supplication  ? 
What  terms  shall  we  find  which  have  not  been  already 
exhausted  ?  Let  us  not,  I  beseech  you,  sir,  deceive  our- 
selves longer.    Sir,  we  have  done  everything  that  could 


194 


APPENDIX  B 


be  done,  to  avert  the  storm  which  is  now  coming  on. 
We  have  petitioned,  we  have  remonstrated,  we  have 
supplicated,  we  have  prostrated  ourselves  before  the 
throne,  and  have  implored  its  interposition  to  arrest  the 
tyrannical  hands  of  the  Ministry  and  Parliament.  Our 
petitions  have  been  slighted ;  our  remonstrances  have 
produced  additional  violence  and  insult;  our  supplica- 
tions have  been  disregarded,  and  we  have  been  spurned 
with  contempt  from  the  foot  of  the  throne.  In  vain, 
after  these  things,  may  we  indulge  in  the  fond  hope  of 
peace  and  reconciliation.  There  is  no  longer  any  room 
for  hope.  If  we  wish  to  be  free,  if  we  mean  to  preserve 
inviolate  those  inestimable  privileges  for  which  we  have 
been  so  long  contending ;  if  we  mean  not  basely  to 
abandon  the  noble  struggle  in  which  we  have  been  so 
long  engaged,  and  which  we  have  pledged  ourselves 
never  to  abandon  until  the  glorious  object  of  our  contest 
shall  be  obtained,  we  must  fight;  I  repeat  it,  sir,  we 
must  fight !  An  appeal  to  arms,  and  to  the  God  of 
Hosts,  is  all  that  is  left  us ! 

They  tell  us,  sir,  that  we  are  weak  —  "  unable  to  cope 
with  so  formidable  an  adversary  "  !  But  when  shall  we 
be  stronger  ?  Will  it  be  the  next  week,  or  the  next 
year  ?  Will  it  be  when  we  are  totally  disarmed,  and 
when  a  British  guard  shall  be  stationed  in  every  house  ? 
Shall  we  gather  strength  by  irresolution  and  inaction  ? 
Shall  we  acquire  the  means  of  effectual  resistance,  by 
lying  supinely  on  our  backs,  and  hugging  the  delusive 
phantom  of  hope,  until  our  enemies  have  bound  us  hand 
and  foot  ?  Sir,  we  are  not  weak,  if  we  make  a  proper 
use  of  those  means  which  the  God  of  Nature  hath 


APPENDIX  B 


195 


placed  in  our  power.  Three  millions  of  people,  armed 
in  the  holy  cause  of  Liberty,  and  in  such  a  country  as 
that  which  we  possess,  are  invincible  by  any  force 
which  our  enemy  can  send  against  us.  Besides,  sir,  we 
shall  not  fight  our  battles  alone.  There  is  a  just  Power 
who  presides  over  the  destinies  of  nations,  and  who  will 
raise  up  friends  to  fight  our  battles  for  us.  The  battle, 
sir,  is  not  to  the  strong  alone ;  it  is  to  the  vigilant,  the 
active,  the  brave.  Besides,  sir,  we  have  no  election. 
If  we  were  base  enough  to  desire  it,  it  is  now  too  late 
to  retire  from  the  contest.  There  is  no  retreat,  but  in 
submission  and  slavery.  Our  chains  are  forged.  Their 
clanking  may  be  heard  on  the  plains  of  Boston.  The 
war  is  inevitable ;  and  let  it  come !  I  repeat  it,  sir,  let 
it  come!  It  is  in  vain,  sir,  to  extenuate  the  matter. 
Gentlemen  may  cry  "  Peace,  peace !  "  but  there  is  no 
peace !  The  war  is  actually  begun !  The  next  gale 
that  sweeps  from  the  north  will  bring  to  our  ears  the 
clash  of  resounding  arms !  Our  brethren  are  already 
in  the  field  !  Why  stand  we  here  idle  ?  What  is  it  that 
gentlemen  wish  ?  What  would  they  have  ?  Is  life  so 
dear,  or  peace  so  sweet,  as  to  be  purchased  at  the  price 
of  chains  and  slavery  ?  Forbid  it,  Almighty  Powers !  — 
I  know  not  what  course  others  may  take ;  but  as  for 
me,  give  me  liberty  or  give  me  death ! 


196 


APPENDIX  B 


IV 

NAPOLEON  TO  THE  ARMY  OF  ITALY 
By  Napoleon  Bonaparte  (i  769-1 821) 

[This  demonstrative  oration  was  delivered  to  the  Army  of  Italy 
on  May  15,  1796,  six  days  after  the  battle  of  Lodi.  In  response, 
the  French  beat  back  the  Austrians  into  Austria,  after  nearly  one 
year  of  fierce  fighting. 

The  plan  of  the  address  follows  : 

1.  You  have  done  much. 

(a)  Extent  of  your  achievement. 

(b)  Its  effect  upon  France. 

2.  Much  still  remains  to  be  done. 

3.  The  nature  of  the  fruits  of  victory.] 

Soldiers  !  You  have  precipitated  yourselves  like  a 
torrent  from  the  Apennines.  You  have  overwhelmed 
or  swept  before  you  all  that  opposed  your  march. 
Piedmont,  delivered  from  Austrian  oppression,  has  re- 
turned to  her  natural  sentiments  of  peace  and  friendship 
toward  France.  Milan  is  yours ;  and  over  all  Lombardy 
floats  the  flag  of  the  Republic.  To  your  generosity  only 
do  the  Dukes  of  Parma  and  Modena  now  owe  their 
political  existence.  The  army  which  proudly  threatened 
you  finds  no  remaining  barrier  of  defense  against  your 
courage.  The  Po,  the  Ticino,  the  Adda,  could  not 
stop  you  a  single  day.  Those  vaunted  ramparts  of 
Italy  proved  insufficient ;  you  traversed  them  as  rapidly 
as  you  did  the  Apennines.  Successes  so  numerous  and 
brilliant  have  carried  joy  to  the  heart  of  your  country. 
Your  representatives  have  decreed  a  festival  to  be  cele- 
brated in  all  the  communes  of  the  Republic,  in  honor  of 


APPENDIX  B 


197 


your  victories.  There  will  your  fathers,  mothers,  wives, 
sisters,  all  who  hold  you  dear,  rejoice  over  your  triumphs, 
and  boast  that  you  belong  to  them. 

Yes,  soldiers,  you  have  done  much;  but  much  still 
remains  for  you  to  do.  Shall  it  be  said  of  us  that  we 
knew  how  to  conquer,  but  not  how  to  profit  by  victory  ? 
Shall  posterity  reproach  us  with  having  found  a  Capua 
in  Lombardy  ?  Nay,  fellow-soldiers !  I  see  you  already 
eager  to  cry  "  to  arms  !  "  Inaction  fatigues  you  ;  and 
days  lost  to  glory  are  to  you  days  lost  to  happiness. 
Let  us,  then,  begone !  We  have  yet  many  forced 
marches  to  make ;  enemies  to  vanquish ;  laurels  to 
gather ;  and  injuries  to  avenge !  Let  those  who  have 
sharpened  the  poniards  of  civil  war  in  France,  who 
have  pusillanimously  assassinated  our  Ministers,  who 
have  burned  our  vessels  at  Toulon,  —  let  them  now 
tremble !    The  hour  of  vengeance  has  knolled  ! 

But  let  not  the  people  be  disquieted.  We  are  the 
friends  of  every  people ;  and  more  especially  of  the 
descendants  of  the  Brutuses,  the  Scipios,  and  other 
great  men  to  whom  we  look  as  bright  exemplars.  To 
reestablish  the  Capitol ;  to  place  there  with  honor  the 
statues  of  the  heroes  who  made  it  memorable  ;  to  rouse 
the  Roman  people,  unnerved  by  many  centuries  of 
oppression,  —  such  will  be  some  of  the  fruits  of  our 
victories.  They  will  constitute  an  epoch  for  posterity. 
To  you,  soldiers,  will  belong  the  immortal  honor  of 
redeeming  the  fairest  portion  of  Europe.  The  French 
people,  free  and  respected  by  the  whole  world,  shall 
give  to  Europe  a  glorious  peace,  which  shall  indemnify 
it  for  all  the  sacrifices  which  it  has  borne  the  last  six 


198 


APPENDIX  B 


years.  Then,  by  your  own  firesides  you  shall  repose, 
and  your  fellow-citizens,  when  they  point  out  any  one 
of  you,  shall  say,  "  He  belonged  to  the  army  of  Italy !  " 

V 

DEDICATION  OF  GETTYSBURG  CEMETERY 

By  Abraham  Lincoln  (1809-1S65) 

[This  oration  was  delivered  at  the  dedication  of  the  National 
Cemetery  at  Gettysburg,  Pennsylvania,  November  19,  1863.  It 
consists  of  (1)  A  contrast.  (2)  What  dedication  means.  (3)  A 
call  to  patriotic  duty.] 

Fourscore  and  seven  years  ago,  our  fathers  brought 
forth  upon  this  continent  a  new  nation,  conceived  in 
liberty  and  dedicated  to  the  proposition  that  all  men 
are  created  equal.  Now  we  are  engaged  in  a  great 
civil  war,  testing  whether  that  nation  —  or  any  nation 
so  conceived  and  so  dedicated  —  can  long  endure. 

We  are  met  on  a  great  battlefield  of  that  war.  We 
are  met  to  dedicate  a  portion  of  it  as  the  final  resting- 
place  of  those  who  have  given  their  lives  that  that  na- 
tion might  live.  It  is  altogether  fitting  and  proper  that 
we  should  do  this. 

But,  in  a  larger  sense,  we  cannot  dedicate,  we  cannot 
consecrate,  we  cannot  hallow,  this  ground.  The  brave 
men,  living  and  dead,  who  struggled  here,  have  conse- 
crated it,  far  above  our  power  to  add  or  to  detract.  The 
world  will  very  little  note  nor  long  remember  what  we 
say  here ;  but  it  can  never  forget  what  they  did  here. 

It  is  for  us,  the  living,  rather,  to  be  dedicated  here  to 
the  unfinished  work  they  have  thus  far  so  nobly  carried 


APPENDIX  B 


199 


on.  It  is  rather  for  us  to  be  here  dedicated  to  the  great 
task  remaining  before  us  :  that  from  these  honored  dead 
we  take  increased  devotion  to  that  cause  for  which  they 
here  gave  the  last  full  measure  of  devotion ;  that  we 
here  highly  resolve  that  these  dead  shall  not  have  died 
in  vain ;  that  the  nation  shall,  under  God,  have  a  new 
birth  of  freedom,  and  that  government  of  the  people,  by 
the  people,  for  the  people,  shall  not  perish  from  the 
earth. 

VI 

A  PLEA  FOR  PATRIOTISM 

By  Benjamin  Harrison  (1833-1901) 

[This  extract  is  from  an  after-dinner  speech  given  at  a  banquet  in 
New  York  City,  April  30,  1889.  It  commemorates  the  one  hundredth 
anniversary  of  the  inauguration  of  George  Washington  as  the  first 
President  of  the  United  States. 

The  order  of  thought  is  :  (1)  Congratulations  on  the  observance 
of  the  anniversary.  (2)  Patriotic  effect  of  this  observance  noted. 
(3)  A  plea  for  a  still  deeper  effect.  (4)  "Our  Country"  not  a 
material  but  a  spiritual  ideal.  (5)  A  plea  for  a  reconsecration  to 
patriotism. 

The  address  in  full  will  be  found  in  the  New  York  Tribune  of 
May  1,  1889.] 

I  congratulate  you  to-day,  as  one  of  the  instructive 
and  interesting  features  of  this  occasion,  that  these 
great  thoroughfares,  dedicated  to  trade,  have  closed 
their  doors  and  covered  the  insignia  of  commerce  with 
the  Stars  and  Stripes ;  that  your  great  exchanges  have 
closed,  and  that  into  the  very  heart  of  Wall  Street  the 
flag  has  been  carried.    Upon  this  old  historic  spot  the 


200 


APPENDIX  B 


men  who  give  their  time  and  energies  to  trade  have 
given  these  days  to  their  country,  to  the  cause  of  her 
glory,  and  to  the  aspiration  for  her  honor  and  develop- 
ment. 

I  have  great  pleasure  in  believing  that  the  love  of 
country  has  been  intensified  in  many  hearts  here ;  not 
only  of  you  who  might  be  called,  and  some  who  have 
been  called,  to  witness  your  love  for  the  flag  in  battle- 
fields by  sea  and  land,  but  in  these  homes,  among  these 
fair  women  who  look  down  upon  us  to-night,  and  in 
the  thoughts  of  those  little  children  who  mingled  their 
piping  cries  with  the  hoarser  acclaims  as  we  moved 
along  your  streets  to-day. 

I  believe  that  patriotism  has  been  blown  into  a  higher 
and  holier  flame  in  many  hearts.  These  banners  with 
which  you  have  covered  your  walls,  these  patriotic  in- 
scriptions, must  come  down,  and  the  ways  of  commerce 
and  trade  be  resumed  here  again. 

I  will  ask  you  to  carry  these  banners  that  now  hang 
on  the  wall  into  your  homes,  into  the  public  schools  of 
your  city,  into  all  your  great  institutions  where  children 
are  gathered,  and  to  drape  them  there,  that  the  eyes  of 
the  young  and  of  the  old  may  look  upon  that  flag  as 
one  of  the  familiar  adornments  of  the  American  home. 

Have  we  not  learned  that  not  stocks  nor  bonds  nor 
stately  houses  nor  lands  nor  the  products  of  the  mill  is 
our  country  ?  It  is  a  spiritual  thought  that  is  in  our 
minds.  It  is  the  flag  and  what  it  stands  for.  It  is  its 
glorious  history.  It  is  the  fireside  and  the  home.  It  is 
the  high  thoughts  that  are  in  the  heart,  born  of  the  in- 
spiration which  comes  by  the  stories  of  their  fathers, 


APPENDIX  B 


201 


the  martyrs  to  liberty ;  it  is  the  graveyards  into  which 
our  careful  country  has  gathered  the  unconscious  dust 
of  those  who  have  died.  Here,  in  these  things,  is  that 
thing  we  love  and  call  our  country  rather  than  in  any- 
thing that  can  be  touched  or  handled. 

To  elevate  the  morals  of  our  people ;  to  hold  up  the 
law  as  that  sacred  thing,  which,  like  the  ark  of  God  of 
old,  cannot  be  touched  by  irreverent  hands,  and  frowns 
upon  every  attempt  to  displace  its  supremacy ;  to  unite 
our  people  in  all  that  makes  home  pure  and  honorable, 
as  well  as  to  give  our  energies  in  the  direction  of  our 
material  advancement,  —  these  services  we  may  render, 
and  out  of  this  great  demonstration  do  we  not  all  feel 
like  reconsecrating  ourselves  to  the  love  and  service  of 
our  country  ? 

VII 

DEFENSE  OF  ROWAN 

By  John  Philpot  Curran  (1750-1817) 

[The  great  Irish  orator  delivered  in  1794  the  forensic  oration  from 
which  the  following  passages  are  taken.  After  a  masterly  plea,  he 
urges  the  following  additional  points,  as  set  forth  in  the  excerpta 
here  given :  — 

The  consideration  upon  which  a  verdict  should  be  founded  is 
character. 
I.  Mr.  Rowan  has  a  good  character. 

1 .  He  is  known  as  a  public  man. 

2.  He  is  known  as  a  champion  of  the  helpless. 

3.  He  is  known  as  a  charitable  man. 

II.  The  inference  is,  that  such  a  man  could  not  be  a  lawless  person. 
III.  The  orator  considers  the  possible  verdict. 

1 .  If  it  be  favorable. 

2.  If  it  be  unfavorable.] 


202 


APPENDIX  B 


Gentlemen,  if  you  still  have  any  doubt  as  to  the  guilt 
or  innocence  of  the  defendant,  give  me  leave  to  suggest 
to  you  what  circumstances  you  ought  to  consider,  in 
order  to  found  your  verdict.  You  should  consider  the 
character  of  the  person  accused ;  and  in  this  your  task 
is  easy.  I  will  venture  to  say  there  is  not  a  man  in  this 
nation  more  known  than  the  gentleman  who  is  the  sub- 
ject of  this  prosecution;  not  only  by  the  part  he  has 
taken  in  public  concerns,  and  which  he  has  taken  in  com- 
mon with  many,  but  still  more  so  by  that  extraordinary 
sympathy  for  human  affliction,  which,  I  am  sorry  to 
think,  he  shares  with  so  small  a  number.  There  is  not 
a  day  that  you  hear  the  cries  of  your  starving  manufac- 
turers in  your  streets  that  you  do  not  also  see  the  advo- 
cate of  their  sufferings, — -that  you  do  not  see  his  honest 
and  manly  figure,  with  uncovered  head,  soliciting  for 
their  relief,  —  searching  the  frozen  heart  of  charity  for 
every  string  that  can  be  touched  by  compassion,  and 
urging  the  force  of  every  argument  and  every  motive, 
save  that  which  his  modesty  suppresses,  the  authority 
of  his  own  generous  example. 

Or,  if  you  see  him  not  there,  you  may  trace  his  steps 
to  the  private  abodes  of  disease,  and  famine,  and  despair, 
—  the  messenger  of  Heaven,  bringing  with  him  food, 
and  medicine,  and  consolation.  Are  these  the  materials 
of  which  you  suppose  anarchy  and  public  rapine  to  be 
formed  ?  Is  this  the  man  on  whom  to  fasten  the  abomi- 
nable charge  of  goading  on  a  frantic  populace  to  mutiny 
and  bloodshed  ?  Is  this  the  man  likely  to  apostatize 
from  every  principle  that  can  bind  him  to  the  State,  — 
his  birth,  his  property,  his  education,  his  character, — 


APPENDIX  B 


203 


and  to  his  children  ?  Let  me  tell  you,  gentlemen  of  the 
jury,  if  you  agree  with  his  prosecutors  in  thinking  that 
there  ought  to  be  a  sacrifice  of  such  a  man  on  such  an 
occasion,  and  upon  the  credit  of  such  evidence  you  are 
to  convict  him,  never  did  you,  never  can  you,  give  a  sen- 
tence, consigning  any  man  to  public  punishment,  with 
less  danger  to  his  person  or  to  his  fame ;  for  where,  to 
fling  contumely  or  ingratitude  at  his  head,  could  the 
hireling  be  found,  whose  private  distresses  he  had  not 
endeavored  to  alleviate,  or  whose  public  condition  he 
had  not  labored  to  improve  ? 

I  will  not  relinquish  the  confidence  that  this  day  will 
be  the  period  to  my  client's  sufferings ;  and  that,  how- 
ever mercilessly  he  has  been  hitherto  pursued,  your  ver- 
dict will  send  him  home  to  the  arms  of  his  family,  and 
the  wishes  of  his  country.  But  if  (which  Heaven  for- 
bid !)  it  hath  still  been  unfortunately  determined,  that, 
because  he  has  not  bent  to  power  and  authority,  —  be- 
cause he  would  not  bow  down  before  the  golden  idol,1 
and  worship  it,  —  he  is  to  be  bound  and  cast  into  the 
furnace,  I  do  trust  in  God  that  there  is  a  redeeming 
spirit  in  the  Constitution,  which  will  be  seen  to  walk 
with  the  sufferer  through  the  flames,  and  to  preserve 
him  unhurt  by  the  conflagration. 

1  The  original  has  the  word  "  calf  "  in  place  of  "  idol."  Curran  confused 
Aaron's  golden  calf  (Exodus  xxxii.)  with  Nebuchadnezzar's  golden  idol, 
which  the  three  Hebrews  refused  to  worship,  and  so  were  thrown  into  the 
fiery  furnace  (Daniel  iii.).  Had  the  Irish  orator  been  as  faithful  a  student 
of  the  Bible  as  was  Daniel  Webster,  he  would  not  have  fallen  into  this 
error. 


204 


APPENDIX  B 


VIII 

THE  WAR  WITH  AMERICA 

By  William  Pitt,  Earl  of  Chatham  (1708-1778) 

[The  elder  Pitt's  famous  deliberative  oration  was  delivered  in  the 
House  of  Lords,  November  18,  1777.  It  was  on  "An  Address  to 
the  Throne  concerning  Affairs  in  America.1'  This  was  the  earl's 
last  speech,  for  he  did  not  live  to  see  his  predictions  fulfilled.  The 
outline  of  the  part  of  the  oration  here  given  is  simple  :  (1)  Pitt  points 
out  the  serious  crisis.  (2)  He  declares,  "  You  cannot  conquer  Amer- 
ica." (3)  He  protests  against  the  barbarity  of  the  practice  of  employ- 
ing Indians  to  fight  the  Americans.] 

I  cannot,  my  Lords,  I  will  not,  join  in  congratulation 
on  misfortune  and  disgrace.  I  cannot  concur  in  a  blind 
and  servile  address,  which  approves  and  endeavors  to 
sanctify  the  monstrous  measures  which  have  heaped 
disgrace  and  misfortune  upon  us.  This,  my  Lords,  is  a 
perilous  and  tremendous  moment !  It  is  not  a  time  for 
adulation.  The  smoothness  of  flattery  cannot  now  avail 
—  cannot  save  us  in  this  rugged  and  awful  crisis.  It  is 
now  necessary  to  instruct  the  Throne  in  the  language 
of  truth.  We  must  dispel  the  illusion  and  the  darkness 
which  envelop  it,  and  display,  in  its  full  danger  and  true 
colors,  the  ruin  that  is  brought  to  our  doors. 

Can  the  minister  of  the  day  now  presume  to  expect  a 
continuance  of  support  in  this  ruinous  infatuation  ?  Can 
Parliament  be  so  dead  to  its  dignity  and  its  duty  as  to 
be  thus  deluded  into  the  loss  of  the  one  and  the  viola- 
tion of  the  other?  To  give  an  unlimited  credit  and 
support  for  the  steady  perseverance  in  measures  not 
proposed  for  our  parliamentary  advice,  but  dictated  and 


APPENDIX  B 


205 


forced  upon  us  —  in  measures,  I  say,  my  Lords,  which 
have  reduced  this  late  nourishing  empire  to  ruin  and 
contempt !  "  But  yesterday,  and  England  might  have 
stood  against  the  world :  now  none  so  poor  to  do  her 
reverence."  The  desperate  state  of  our  arms  abroad  is 
in  part  known.  No  man  thinks  more  highly  of  them 
than  I  do.  I  love  and  honor  the  English  troops.  I 
know  their  virtues  and  their  valor.  I  know  they  can 
achieve  anything  except  impossibilities ;  and  I  know 
that  the  conquest  of  English  America  is  an  impossibility. 
You  cannot,  I  venture  to  say  it,  you  cannot  conquer 
America.  Your  armies  in  the  last  war  effected  every- 
thing that  could  be  effected ;  and  what  was  it  ?  It  cost 
a  numerous  army,  under  the  command  of  a  most  able 
general,  now  a  noble  Lord  in  this  House,1  a  long  and 
laborious  campaign,  to  expel  five  thousand  Frenchmen 
from  French  America.  My  Lords,  you  cannot  conquer 
America.  What  is  your  present  situation  there?  We 
do  not  know  the  worst ;  but  we  know  that  in  three  cam- 
paigns we  have  done  nothing  and  suffered  much. 

You  may  swell  every  expense,  accumulate  every  assist- 
ance, and  extend  your  traffic  to  the  shambles  of  every 
German  despot ;  your  attempts  will  be  forever  vain  and 
impotent — doubly  so,  indeed,  from  this  mercenary  aid 
on  which  you  rely ;  for  it  irritates,  to  an  incurable  re- 
sentment, the  minds  of  your  adversaries,  to  over-run 
them  with  the  mercenary  sons  of  rapine  and  plunder, 
devoting  them  and  their  possessions  to  the  rapacity  of 
hireling  cruelty.  If  I  were  an  American,  as  I  am  an 
Englishman,  while  a  foreign  troop  was  landed  in  my 
1  Lord  Amherst. 


206 


APPENDIX  B 


country,  I  never  would  lay  down  my  arms  —  never, 
never,  never ! 

But,  my  Lords,  who  is  the  man,  that,  in  addition  to  the 
disgraces  and  mischiefs  of  the  war,  has  dared  to  author- 
ize and  associate  to  our  arms,  the  tomahawk  and  scalp- 
ing-knife  of  the  savage  ?  —  to  call,  into  civilized  alliance, 
the  wild  and  inhuman  inhabitant  of  the  woods  ?  —  to 
delegate  to  the  merciless  Indian  the  defense  of  disputed 
rights,  and  to  wage  the  horrors  of  his  barbarous  war 
against  our  brethren  ?  My  Lords,  these  enormities  cry 
aloud  for  redress  and  punishment.  But,  my  Lords,  this 
barbarous  measure  has  been  defended,  not  only  on  the 
principles  of  policy  and  necessity,  but  also  those  of  mo- 
rality ;  "  for  it  is  perfectly  allowable,"  says  Lord  Suffolk, 
"  to  use  all  the  means  which  God  and  nature  have  put 
into  our  hands."  I  am  astonished,  I  am  shocked,  to  hear 
such  principles  confessed ;  to  hear  them  avowed  in  this 
House,  or  in  this  country.  My  Lords,  I  did  not  intend 
to  encroach  upon  so  much  of  your  attention,  but  I  can- 
not repress  my  indignation  —  I  feel  myself  impelled  to 
speak.  My  Lords,  we  are  called  upon,  as  members  of 
this  house,  as  men,  as  Christians,  to  protest  against  such 
horrible  barbarity  !  —  "  That  God  and  nature  have  put 
into  our  hands  ! "  What  ideas  of  God  and  nature  that 
noble  Lord  may  entertain,  I  know  not ;  but  I  know  that 
such  detestable  principles  are  equally  abhorrent  to  reli- 
gion and  humanity.  What !  to  attribute  the  sacred  sanc- 
tion of  God  and  nature  to  the  massacres  of  the  Indian 
scalping-knif e  !  —  to  the  cannibal  savage,  torturing,  mur- 
dering, devouring,  drinking  the  blood  of  his  mangled 
victims  !  Such  notions  shock  every  precept  of  morality, 


APPENDIX  B 


207 


every  feeling  of  humanity,  every  sentiment  of  honor. 
These  abominable  principles,  and  this  more  abominable 
avowal  of  them,  demand  the  most  decisive  indignation  ! 

IX 

THE  NEW  AMERICANISM 

By  Henry  Watterson  (1840-  ) 

[The  following  after-dinner  oration  was  delivered  at  the  annual 
meeting  of  the  New  England  Society,  in  New  York  City,  December 
22,  1894.  The  New  York  Tribune  of  the  following  day  contains  the 
full  address.  Its  outline  may  be  set  down  as  follows  :  (1)  Introduc- 
tory reference  to  Henry  W.  Grady's  oration,  "  The  New  South.11 1 
(2)  Lincoln  the  typical  American.  (3)  Appeal  to  all  sections  of 
the  country  for  tolerance.] 

Eight  years  ago  to-night,  there  stood  where  I  am 
standing  now  a  young  Georgian,  who,  not  without  reason, 
recognized  the  "significance"  of  his  presence  here,  and,  in 
words  whose  eloquence  I  cannot  hope  to  recall,  appealed 
from  the  New  South  to  New  England  for  a  united  country. 

He  is  gone  now.  But,  short  as  his  life  was,  its  heaven- 
born  mission  was  fulfilled ;  the  dream  of  his  childhood 
was  realized;  for  he  had  been  appointed  by  God  to 
carry  a  message  of  peace  on  earth,  good  will  to  men, 
and,  this  done,  he  vanished  from  the  sight  of  mortal 
eyes,  even  as  the  dove  from  the  ark. 

Grady  told  us,  and  told  us  truly,  of  that  typical 
American  who,  in  Dr.  Talmage's  mind's  eye,  was  com- 
ing, but  who,  in  Abraham  Lincoln's  actuality,  had 
already  come    In  some  recent  studies  into  the  career  of 

1  See  pp.  226-239. 


208 


APPENDIX  B 


that  man,  I  have  encountered  many  startling  confirma- 
tions of  this  judgment ;  and  from  that  rugged  trunk, 
drawing  its  sustenance  from  gnarled  roots,  interlocked 
with  Cavalier  sprays  and  Puritan  branches  deep  beneath 
the  soil,  shall  spring,  is  springing,  a  shapely  tree  —  sym- 
metric in  all  its  parts  —  under  whose  sheltering  boughs 
this  nation  shall  have  the  new  birth  of  freedom  Lincoln 
promised  it,  and  mankind  the  refuge  which  was  sought 
by  the  forefathers  when  they  fled  from  oppression, 
Thank  God,  the  ax,  the  gibbet,  and  the  stake  have  had 
their  day.  They  have  gone,  let  us  hope,  to  keep  com- 
pany with  the  lost  arts.  It  has  been  demonstrated  that 
great  wrongs  may  be  redressed  and  great  reforms  be 
achieved  without  the  shedding  of  one  drop  of  human 
blood ;  that  vengeance  does  not  purify,  but  brutalizes ; 
and  that  tolerance,  which  in  private  transactions  is  reck- 
oned a  virtue,  becomes  in  public  affairs  a  dogma  of  the 
most  far-seeing  statesmanship. 

So  I  appeal  from  the  men  in  silken  hose  who  danced 
to  music  made  by  slaves  —  and  called  it  freedom  —  from 
the  men  in  bell-crowned  hats,  who  led  Hester  Prynne  to 
her  shame  —  and  called  it  religion  —  to  that  American- 
ism which  reaches  forth  its  arms  to  smite  wrong  with 
reason  and  truth,  secure  in  the  power  of  both.  I  appeal 
from  the  patriarchs  of  New  England  to  the  poets  of 
New  England ;  from  Endicott  to  Lowell ;  from  Win- 
throp  to  Longfellow;  from  Norton  to  Holmes;  and  I 
appeal  in  the  name  and  by  the  rights  of  that  common 
citizenship  —  of  that  common  origin  —  back  of  both  the 
Puritan  and  the  Cavalier  —  to  which  all  of  us  owe  our 
being.    Let  the  dead  past,  consecrated  by  the  blood  of 


APPENDIX  B 


209 


its  martyrs,  not  by  its  savage  hatreds  —  darkened  alike 
by  kingcraft  and  priestcraft  —  let  the  dead  past  bury  its 
dead.  Let  the  present  and  the  future  ring  with  the  song 
of  the  singers.  Blessed  be  the  lessons  they  teach,  the 
laws  they  make.  Blessed  be  the  eye  to  see,  the  light  to 
reveal.  Blessed  be  Tolerance,  sitting  ever  on  the  right 
hand  of  God  to  guide  the  way  with  loving  word,  as 
blessed  be  all  that  brings  us  nearer  the  goal  of  true 
religion,  true  Republicanism,  and  true  patriotism,  dis- 
trust of  watchwords  and  labels,  shams  and  heroes,  belief 
in  our  country  and  ourselves.  It  was  not  Cotton  Mather, 
but  John  Greenleaf  Whittier,  who  cried  :  — 

"  Dear  God  and  Father  of  us  all, 
Forgive  our  faith  in  cruel  lies, 
Forgive  the  blindness  that  denies. 

"  Cast  down  our  idols  —  overturn 
Our  bloody  altars  —  make  us  see 
Thyself  in  Thy  humanity  !  " 

X 

THE  GUILLOTINE 

By  Victor  Hugo  (1802-1885) 

[This  passionate  fragment  of  forensic  eloquence  was  spoken  in 
defense  of  the  orator's  son,  under  circumstances  set  forth  in  the 
oration  itself. 

(1)  The  orator  "denounces"  himself  and  defends  his  son. 
(2)  He  then  attacks  the  law.  (3)  Next,  he  narrates  the  circum- 
stances which  led  up  to  his  son's  protest.  (4)  Finally,  he  presents 
the  protest  in  its  true  light,  and  submits  the  case  to  the  jury.] 

Gentlemen  of  the  Jury,  if  there  is  a  culprit  here,  it  is 
not  my  son,  —  it  is  I !  —  I,  who  for  these  twenty-five 


210 


APPENDIX  t 


years  have  opposed  capital  punishment,— have  con- 
tended for  the  inviolability  of  human  life,  —  have  com- 
mitted this  crime  for  which  my  son  is  now  arraigned. 
Here  I  denounce  myself,  Mr.  Advocate  General!  I 
have  committed  it  under  all  aggravated  circumstances ; 
deliberately,  repeatedly,  tenaciously.  Yes,  this  old  and 
absurd  lex  talionis  —  this  law  of  blood  for  blood  —  I  have 
combated  all  my  life  —  all  my  life,  Gentlemen  of  the 
Jury !  And,  while  I  have  breath,  I  will  continue  to 
combat  it,  by  all  my  efforts  as  a  writer,  by  all  my  words 
and  all  my  votes  as  a  legislator !  •  I  declare  it  before  the 
crucifix ;  before  that  Victim  of  the  penalty  of  death,  who 
sees  and  hears  us ;  before  that  gibbet,  to  which,  two 
thousand  years  ago,  for  the  eternal  instruction  of  the 
generations,  the  human  law  nailed  the  Divine ! 

In  all  that  my  son  has  written  on  the  subject  of 
capital  punishment  and  for  writing  and  publishing 
which  he  is  now  on  trial,  —  in  all  that  he  has  written, 
he  has  merely  proclaimed  the  sentiments  with  which, 
from  his  infancy,  I  have  inspired  him.  Gentlemen 
Jurors,  the  right  to  criticise  a  law,  and  to  criticise  it 
severely  —  especially  a  penal  law  -^/is  placed  beside  the 
duty  of  amelioration,  like  the  torch  beside  the  work 
under  the  artisan's  hand.  The  right  of  the  journalist  is 
as  sacred,  as  necessary,  as  imprescriptible,  as  the  right 
of  the  legislator. 

What  are  the  circumstances  ?  A  man,  a  convict,  a 
sentenced  wretch,  is  dragged,  on  a  certain  morning,  to 
one  of  our  public  squares.  There  he  finds  the  scaffold ! 
He  shudders,  he  struggles,  he  refuses  to  die.  He  is 
young  yet  —  only  twenty-nine.    Ah  !  I  know  what  you 


APPENDIX  B 


211 


will  say,  —  "  He  is  a  murderer  !  "  But  hear  me.  Two 
officers  seize  him.  His  hands,  his  feet,  are  tied.  He 
throws  off  the  two  officers.  A  frightful  struggle  ensues. 
His  feet,  bound  as  they  are,  become  entangled  in  the 
ladder.  He  uses  the  scaffold  against  the  scaffold  !  The 
struggle  is  prolonged.     Horror  seizes  on  the  crowd 


The  officers,  —  sweat  and  shame  on  their  brows,  —  pale, 
panting,  terrified,  despairing,  —  despairing  with  I  know 
not  what  horrible  despair,  —  shrinking  under  that  public 
reprobation  which  ought  to  have  visited  the  penalty,  and 
spared  the  passive  instrument,  the  executioner,  —  the 
officers  strive  savagely.  The  victim  clings  to  the  scaf- 
fold, and  shrieks  for  pardon.  His  clothes  are  torn,  — 
his  shoulders  bloody,  —  still  he  resists.  At  length,  after 
three  quarters  of  an  hour  of  this  monstrous  effort,  of 
this  spectacle  without  a  name,  of  this  agony,  —  agony 
for  all,  be  it  understood,  —  agony  for  the  assembled 
spectators  as  well  as  for  the  condemned  man,  —  after 
this  age  of  anguish,  Gentlemen  of  the  Jury,  they  take 
back  the  poor  wretch  to  his  prison. 

The  People  breathe  again.  The  People,  naturally 
merciful,  hope  that  the  man  will  be  spared.  But  no,  — 
the  guillotine,  though  vanquished,  remains  standing. 
There  it  frowns  all  day,  in  the  midst  of  a  sickened 
population.  And  at  night,  the  officers,  reenforced,  drag 
forth  the  wretch  again,  so  bound  that  he  is  but  an  inert 
weight,  —  they  drag  him  forth,  haggard,  bloody,  weeping, 
pleading,  howling  for  life,  —  calling  upon  God,  calling 
upon  his  father  and  mother,  —  for  like  a  very  child  had 
this  man  become  in  the  prospect  of  death,  —  they  drag 
him  forth  to  execution.    He  is  hoisted  on  the  scaffold, 


212 


APPENDIX  B 


and  his  head  falls  !  —  And  then  through  every  conscience 
runs  a  shudder.  Never  had  legal  murder  appeared  with 
an  aspect  so  indecent,  so  abominable.  All  feel  jointly 
implicated  in  the  deed.  It  is  at  this  very  moment  that 
from  a  young  man's  breast  escapes  a  cry,  wrung  from 
his  very  heart,  —  a  cry  of  pity  and  of  anguish,  —  a  cry 
of  horror,  —  a  cry  of  humanity.  And  this  cry  you 
would  punish !  And  in  the  face  of  the  appalling  facts 
which  I  have  narrated,  you  would  say  to  the  guillotine, 
"Thou  art  right!"  and  to  Pity,  saintly  Pity,  "Thou  art 
wrong !  "  Gentlemen  of  the  Jury,  it  cannot  be  !  Gen- 
tlemen, I  have  finished. 

XI 

ADDRESS  TO  THE  AMERICAN  TROOPS 
By  George  Washington  (i 732-1 799) 

[This  demonstrative  address  was  spoken  to  the  patriot  soldiery 
yist  before  the  battle  of  Long  Island,  August  27,  1776.  It  consists 
of  three  thought-divisions:  (1)  Washington  presents  the  alterna- 
tives. (2)  He  urges  the  motives  for  heroic  resistance.  (3)  Final 
appeal  and  directions. 

Washington's  complete  writings  have  been  published  under  the 
editorship  of  W.  C.  Ford,  New  York,  1888.] 

The  time  is  now  near  at  hand  which  must  probably 
determine  whether  Americans  are  to  be  freemen  or 
slaves ;  whether  they  are  to  have  any  property  they  can 
call  their  own ;  whether  their  houses  and  farms  are  to 
be  pillaged  and  destroyed,  and  themselves  consigned  to 
a  state  of  wretchedness  from  which  no  human  efforts 
will  deliver  them.  The  fate  of  unborn  millions  will  now 
depend,  under  God,  on  the  courage  and  conduct  of  this 


APPENDIX  B 


213 


army.  Our  cruel  and  unrelenting  enemy  leaves  us  only 
the  choice  of  a  brave  resistance,  or  the  most  abject  sub- 
mission. We  have,  therefore,  to  resolve  to  conquer  or 
to  die.  Our  own,  our  country's  honor,  calls  upon  us  for  a 
vigorous  and  manly  exertion  ;  and  if  we  now  shamefully 
fail,  we  shall  become  infamous  to  the  whole  world.  Let 
us,  then,  rely  on  the  goodness  of  our  cause,  and  the  aid 
of  the  Supreme  Being,  in  whose  hands  victory  is,  to 
animate  and  encourage  us  to  great  and  noble  actions. 
The  eyes  of  all  our  countrymen  are  now  upon  us ;  and 
we  shall  have  their  blessings  and  praises,  if  happily  we 
are  the  instruments  of  saving  them  from  the  tyranny 
meditated  against  them.  Let  us,  therefore,  animate  and 
encourage  each  other,  and  show  the  whole  world  that  a 
freeman  contending  for  liberty  on  his  own  ground  is 
superior  to  any  slavish  mercenary  on  earth. 

Liberty,  property,  life,  and  honor,  are  all  at  stake. 
Upon  your  courage  and  conduct  rest  the  hopes  of  our 
bleeding  and  insulted  country.  Our  wives,  children, 
and  parents  expect  safety  from  us  only ;  and  they  have 
every  reason  to  believe  that  Heaven  will  crown  with 
success  so  just  a  cause.  The  enemy  will  endeavor  to 
intimidate  by  show  and  appearance ;  but  remember  they 
have  been  repulsed  on  various  occasions  by  a  few  brave 
Americans.  Their  cause  is  bad  —  their  men  are  con- 
scious of  it ;  and,  if  opposed  with  firmness  and  coolness 
on  their  first  onset,  with  our  advantage  of  works,  and 
knowledge  of  the  ground,  the  victory  is  most  assuredly 
ours.  Every  good  soldier  will  be  silent  and  attentive, 
wait  for  orders,  and  reserve  his  fire  until  he  is  sure  of 
doing  execution. 


214 


APPENDIX  B 


XII 

ROBESPIERRE'S  LAST  SPEECH 

By  Maximilian  Marie  Isidore  de  Robespierre  (175S-1794) 

[Before  his  execution  on  the  guillotine,  Robespierre  addressed 
the  populace  of  Paris.  His  words  consist  of:  (1)  A  defence  against 
the  charge  that  he  was  a  tyrant.  (2)  An  explanation  of  his  true  mo- 
tives. (3)  A  declaration  that  he  is  superior  to  mere  personal  consid- 
erations.   (4)  An  appeal  to  history.    (5)  An  appeal  to  France.] 

The  enemies  of  the  Republic  call  me  tyrant !  Were 
I  such  they  would  grovel  at  my  feet.  I  should  gorge 
them  with  gold,  I  should  grant  them  immunity  for  their 
crimes,  and  they  would  be  grateful.  Were  I  such,  the 
kings  we  have  vanquished,  far  from  denouncing  Robes- 
pierre, would  lend  me  their  guilty  support;  there  would 
be  a  covenant  between  them  and  me.  Tyranny  must 
have  tools.  But  the  enemies  of  tyranny,  —  whither  does 
their  path  tend  ?  To  the  tomb,  and  to  immortality ! 
What  tyrant  is  my  protector?  To  what  faction  do  I 
belong  ?  Yourselves  !  What  faction,  since  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Revolution,  has  crushed  and  annihilated  so 
many  detected  traitors  ?  You,  the  people,  —  our  princi- 
ples, are  that  faction  —  a  faction  to  which  I  am  de- 
voted, and  against  which  all  the  scoundrelism  of  the 
day  is  banded! 

The  confirmation  of  the  Republic  has  been  my  object; 
and  I  know  that  the  Republic  can  be  established  only 
on  the  eternal  basis  of  morality.  Against  me,  and 
against  those  who  hold  kindred  principles,  the  league  is 
formed.    My  life  ?    Oh !  my  life  I  abandon  without  a 


APPENDIX  B 


2I5 


regret !  I  have  seen  the  past ;  and  I  foresee  the  future. 
What  friend  of  this  country  would  wish  to  survive  the 
moment  when  he  could  no  longer  serve  it,  —  when  he 
could  no  longer  defend  innocence  against  oppression  ? 
Wherefore  should  I  continue  in  an  order  of  things, 
where  intrigue  eternally  triumphs  over  truth;  where 
justice  is  mocked;  where  passions  the  most  abject,  or 
fears  the  most  absurd,  over-ride  the  sacred  interests 
of  humanity  ?  In  witnessing  the  multitude  of  vices 
which  the  torrent  of  the  Revolution  has  rolled  in 
turbid  communion  with  its  civic  virtues,  I  confess  that  I 
have  sometimes  feared  that  I  should  be  sullied,  in  the 
eyes  of  posterity,  by  the  impure  neighborhood  of  un- 
principled men,  who  had  thrust  themselves  into  associa- 
tion with  the  sincere  friends  of  humanity;  and  I  rejoice 
that  these  conspirators  against  my  country  have  now, 
by  their  reckless  rage,  traced  deep  the  line  of  demarca- 
tion between  themselves  and  all  true  men. 

Question  history,  and  learn  how  all  the  defenders  of 
liberty,  in  all  times,  have  been  overwhelmed  by  calumny. 
But  their  traducers  died  also.  The  good  and  the  bad 
disappear  alike  from  the  earth;  but  in  very  different 
conditions.  O  Frenchmen  !  O  my  countrymen !  Let 
not  your  enemies,  with  their  desolating  doctrines,  de- 
grade your  souls,  and  enervate  your  virtues !  No,  Chau- 
mette,  no  !  Death  is  not  "  an  eternal  sleep  "  !  Citizens  ! 
efface  from  the  tomb  that  motto,  graven  by  sacrilegious 
hands,  which  spreads  over  all  nature  a  funereal  crape, 
takes  from  oppressed  innocence  its  support,  and  affronts 
the  beneficent  dispensation  of  death !  Inscribe  rather 
thereon  these  words :  "  Death  is  the  commencement  of 


2l6 


APPENDIX  B 


immortality  !  "  I  leave  to  the  oppressors  of  the  People 
a  terrible  testament,  which  I  proclaim  with  the  indepen- 
dence befitting  one  whose  career  is  so  nearly  ended ;  it 
is  the  awful  truth,  —  "  Thou  shalt  die !  " 

XIII 

THE  GLORIES  OF  THE  DAWN 

By  Edward  Everett  (i  794-1 865) 

[The  following  descriptive  passage  is  from  an  oration  delivered 
in  Albany,  New  York,  August  28,  1856.] 

Much  as  we  are  indebted  to  our  observatories  for  ele- 
vating our  conceptions  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  they 
present  even  to  the  unaided  sight  scenes  of  glory  which 
words  are  too  feeble  to  describe.  I  had  occasion,  a  few 
weeks  since,  to  take  the  early  train  from  Providence  to 
Boston ;  and  for  this  purpose  rose  at  two  o'clock  in  the 
morning.  Everything  around  was  wrapped  in  darkness 
and  hushed  in  silence,  broken  only  by  what  seemed  at 
that  hour  the  unearthly  clank  and  rush  of  the  train.  It 
was  a  mild,  serene,  midsummer's  night  —  the  sky  was 
without  a  cloud — the  winds  were  whist.  The  moon,  then 
in  the  last  quarter,  had  just  risen,  and  the  stars  shone 
with  a  special  lustre  but  little  affected  by  her  presence. 
Jupiter,  two  hours  high,  was  the  herald  of  the  day ;  the 
Pleiades,  just  above  the  horizon,  shed  their  sweet  influ- 
ence in  the  east ;  Lyra  sparkled  near  the  zenith ;  An- 
dromeda veiled  her  newly  discovered  glories  from  the 
naked  eye  in  the  south ;  the  steady  pointers  far  beneath 
the  pole  looked  meekly  up  from  the  depth  of  the  north 
to  their  sovereign. 


APPENDIX  B 


217 


Such  was  the  glorious  spectacle  as  I  entered  the  train. 
As  we  proceeded,  the  timid  approach  of  twilight  became 
more  perceptible ;  the  intense  blue  of  the  sky  began  to 
soften ;  the  smaller  stars,  like  little  children,  went  first 
to  rest;  the  sister  beams  of  the  Pleiades  soon  melted 
together ;  but  the  bright  constellations  of  the  west  and 
north  remained  unchanged.  Steadily  the  wondrous 
transfiguration  went  on.  Hands  of  angels  hidden  from 
mortal  eyes  shifted  the  scenery  of  the  heavens;  the 
glories  of  night  dissolved  into  the  glories  of  the  dawn. 
The  blue  sky  now  turned  more  softly  gray ;  the  great 
watch-stars  shut  up  their  holy  eyes ;  the  east  began  to 
kindle.  Faint  streaks  of  purple  soon  blushed  along  the 
sky;  the  whole  celestial  concave  was  filled  with  the 
inflowing  tides  of  the  morning  light,  which  came  pouring 
down  from  above  in  one  great  ocean  of  radiance ;  till  at 
length,  as  we  reached  the  Blue  Hills,  a  flash  of  purple 
fire  blazed  out  from  above  the  horizon,  and  turned  the 
dewy  tear-drops  of  flower  and  leaf  into  rubies  and  dia- 
monds. In  a  few  seconds  the  everlasting  gates  of  the 
morning  were  thrown  wide  open,  and  the  lord  of  day, 
arrayed  in  glories  too  severe  for  the  gaze  of  man,  began 
his  state. 

XIV 

EULOGY  OF  LINCOLN 
By  John  Philip  Newman  (1826-  ) 

Human  glory  is  often  fickle  as  the  winds,  and  tran- 
sient as  a  summer  day ;  but  Abraham  Lincoln's  place 
in  history  is  assured.    All  the  symbols  of  this  world's 


218 


APPENDIX  B 


admiration  are  his.  He  is  embalmed  in  song,  recorded 
in  history,  eulogized  in  panegyric,  cast  in  bronze,  sculp- 
tured in  marble,  painted  on  canvas,  enshrined  in  the 
hearts  of  his  countrymen,  and  lives  in  the  memories  of 
mankind.  Some  men  are  brilliant  in  their  times,  but 
their  words  and  deeds  are  of  little  worth  to  history ;  but 
his  mission  was  as  large  as  his  country,  vast  as  human- 
ity, enduring  as  time.  No  greater  thought  can  ever 
enter  the  human  mind  than  obedience  to  law  and  free- 
dom for  all.  Some  men  are  not  honored  by  their  con- 
temporaries, and  die  neglected.  Here  is  one  more 
honored  than  any  other  man  while  living,  more  revered 
when  dying,  and  destined  to  be  loved  to  the  last  sylla- 
ble of  recorded  time.  He  has  this  threefold  greatness 
—  great  in  life,  great  in  death,  great  in  the  history  of 
the  world.  Lincoln  will  grow  upon  the  attention  and 
affections  of  posterity,  because  he  saved  the  life  of  the 
greatest  nation,  whose  ever  widening  influence  is  to  bless 
humanity.  Measured  by  this  standard,  Lincoln  shall 
live  in  history  from  age  to  age. 

Great  men  appear  in  groups,  and  in  groups  they  dis- 
appear from  the  vision  of  the  world ;  but  we  do  not  love 
or  hate  men  in  groups.  We  speak  of  Gutenberg  and  his 
coadjutors,  of  Washington  and  his  generals,  of  Lincoln 
and  his  cabinet;  but  when  the  day  of  judgment  comes, 
we  crown  the  inventor  of  printing,  we  place  the  laurel 
on  the  brow  of  the  father  of  his  country,  and  the 
chaplet  of  renown  upon  the  head  of  the  savior  of 
the  republic. 

Some  men  are  great  from  the  littleness  of  their  sur- 
roundings; but  he  only  is  great  who  is  great  amid 


APPENDIX  B 


219 


greatness.  Lincoln  had  great  associates  —  Seward,  the 
sagacious  diplomatist;  Chase,  the  eminent  financier; 
Stanton,  the  incomparable  Secretary  of  War,  —  with 
illustrious  senators  and  soldiers.  Neither  could  take  his 
part  nor  fill  his  position.  And  the  same  law  of  the 
coming  and  going  of  great  men  is  true  of  our  own  day. 
In  piping  times  of  peace  genius  is  not  aflame,  and  true 
greatness  is  not  apparent;  but  when  the  crisis  comes, 
then  God  lifts  the  curtain  from  obscurity  and  reveals  the 
man  for  the  hour. 

Lincoln  stands  forth  on  the  page  of  history,  unique 
in  his  character,  and  magnetic  in  his  individuality.  Like 
Milton's  angel,  he  was  an  original  conception.  He  was 
raised  up  for  his  times.  He  was  a  leader  of  leaders.  By 
instinct  the  common  heart  trusted  him.  He  was  of  the 
people  and  for  the  people.  He  had  been  poor  and  la- 
borious; but  greatness  did  not  change  the  tone  of  his 
spirit  or  lessen  the  sympathies  of  his  nature.  His  char- 
acter was  strangely  symmetrical.  He  was  temperate, 
without  austerity;  brave,  without  rashness;  constant, 
without  obstinacy.  He  put  caution  against  hope,  that 
it  might  not  be  premature;  and  hope  against  caution, 
that  it  might  not  yield  to  dread  or  danger.  His  marvel- 
ous hopefulness  never  betrayed  him  into  impracticable 
measures.  His  love  of  justice  was  only  equaled  by  his 
delight  in  compassion.  His  regard  for  personal  honor 
was  only  excelled  by  love  of  country.  His  self-abne- 
gation found  its  highest  expression  in  the  public  good. 
His  integrity  was  never  questioned.  His  honesty  was 
above  suspicion.  He  was  more  solid  than  brilliant ;  his 
judgment  dominated  his  imagination;  his  ambition  was 


220 


APPENDIX  B 


subject  to  his  modesty;  and  his  love  of  justice  held  the 
mastery  over  all  personal  considerations.  Not  except- 
ing Washington,  who  inherited  wealth  and  high  social 
position,  Lincoln  is  the  fullest  representative  American 
in  our  national  annals.  He  had  touched  every  round  in 
the  human  ladder.  He  illustrated  the  possibilities  of 
our  citizenship.  We  are  not  ashamed  of  his  humble 
origin.    We  are  proud  of  his  greatness. 

We  are  to  judge  men  by  their  surroundings  and 
measure  their  greatness  by  the  difficulties  which  they 
surmounted.  Every  age  has  its  heroes,  every  crisis  its 
master.  Lincoln  came  into  power  in  the  largest  and 
most  violent  political  convulsion  known  to  history.  In 
nothing  is  the  sagacity  and  might  of  Lincoln's  states- 
manship more  apparent  than  in  his  determination  to 
save  the  Union  of  these  States.  This  was  the  objective 
point  of  his  administration.  He  denied  state  sover- 
eignty as  paramount  to  national  sovereignty.  States 
have  their  rights  and  their  obligations ;  and  their  chief 
obligation  is  to  remain  in  the  Union.  Some  political 
philanthropists  clamored  for  the  overthrow  of  slavery, 
and  advocated  the  dissolution  of  the  Union  rather  than 
live  in  a  country  under  whose  government  slavery  was 
tolerated.  But  Lincoln  was  a  wiser  and  a  better  philan- 
thropist than  they.  He  would  have  the  Union,  with  or 
without  slavery.  He  preferred  it  without,  and  his  pref- 
erence prevailed.  How  incomparably  worse  would  have 
been  the  condition  of  the  slave  in  a  Confederacy  with  a 
living  slave  for  its  corner-stone  than  in  the  Union  of  the 
States  !  Time  has  vindicated  the  character  of  his  states- 
manship, that  to  preserve  the  Union  was  to  save  this 


APPENDIX  B 


221 


great  nation  for  human  liberty,  and  thereby  advance 
the  emancipated  slave  to  education,  thrift,  and  political 
equality. 

XV 

A  PLEA  FOR  CUBA 

By  John  Mellen  Thurston  (1847-  ) 

[This  deliberative  oration  was  delivered  in  the  United  States 
Senate  on  March  24,  1898.  It  is  recorded  in  full  in  the  Congres- 
sional Record  of  that  date.  Mrs.  Thurston  died  in  Cuba.  As  a 
dying  request  she  urged  her  husband,  who  was  investigating  affairs 
in  the  island,  to  do  his  utmost  to  induce  the  United  States  to  inter- 
vene—  hence  this  oration.] 

Mr.  President,  I  am  here  by  command  of  silent  lips 
to  speak  once  and  for  all  upon  the  Cuban  situation. 
I  shall  endeavor  to  be  honest,  conservative,  and  just. 
I  have  no  purpose  to  stir  the  public  passion  to  any 
action  not  necessary  and  imperative  to  meet  the  duties 
and  necessities  of  American  responsibility,  Christian 
humanity,  and  national  honor.  I  would  shirk  this  task 
if  I  could,  but  I  dare  not.  I  cannot  satisfy  my  con- 
science except  by  speaking,  and  speaking  now. 

I  went  to  Cuba  firmly  believing  that  the  condition  of 
affairs  there  had  been  greatly  exaggerated  by  the  press, 
and  my  own  efforts  were  directed  in  the  first  instance  to 
the  attempted  exposure  of  these  supposed  exaggerations. 
There  has  undoubtedly  been  much  sensationalism  in  the 
journalism  of  the  time,  but  as  to  the  condition  of  affairs 
in  Cuba,  there  has  been  no  exaggeration,  because  exag- 
geration has  been  impossible. 


222 


APPENDIX  B 


Under  the  inhuman  policy  of  Weyler  not  less  than 
four  hundred  thousand  self-supporting,  simple,  peace^ 
able,  defenseless  country  people  were  driven  from  their 
homes  in  the  agricultural  portions  of  the  Spanish  prov- 
inces to  the  cities,  and  imprisoned  upon  the  barren  waste 
outside  the  residence  portions  of  these  cities  and  within 
the  lines  of  intrenchment  established  a  little  way  beyond. 
Their  humble  homes  were  burned,  their  fields  laid  waste, 
their  implements  of  husbandry  destroyed,  their  live  stock 
and  food  supplies  for  the  most  part  confiscated.  Most 
of  the  people  were  old  men,  women,  and  children. 
They  were  thus  placed  in  hopeless  imprisonment,  with- 
out shelter  or  food.  There  was  no  work  for  them  in 
the  cities  to  which  they  were  driven.  They  were  left 
with  nothing  to  depend  upon  except  the  scanty  charity 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the  cities  and  with  slow  starvation 
their  inevitable  fate.  .  .  . 

The  pictures  in  the  American  newspapers  of  the 
starving  reconcentrados  are  true.  They  can  all  be 
duplicated  by  the  thousands.  I  never  before  saw,  and 
please  God  I  may  never  again  see,  so  deplorable  a  sight 
as  the  reconcentrados  in  the  suburbs  of  Matanzas.  I 
can  never  forget  to  my  dying  day  the  hopeless  anguish 
in  their  despairing  eyes.  Huddled  about  their  little 
bark  huts,  they  raised  no  voice  of  appeal  to  us  for  alms 
as  we  went  among  them.  .  .  . 

Men,  women,  and  children  stand  silent,  famishing 
with  hunger.  Their  only  appeal  comes  from  their  sad 
eyes,  through  which  one  looks  as  through  an  open  win- 
dow into  their  agonizing  souls. 

The  government  of  Spain  has  not  appropriated  and 


APPENDIX  B 


223 


will  not  appropriate  one  dollar  to  save  these  people. 
They  are  now  being  attended  and  nursed  and  admin- 
istered to  by  the  charity  of  the  United  States.  Think 
of  the  spectacle!  We  are  feeding  these  citizens  of 
Spain ;  we  are  nursing  their  sick ;  we  are  saving  such 
as  can  be  saved,  and  yet  there  are  those  who  still  say  it 
is  right  for  us  to  send  food,  but  we  must  keep  hands  off. 
I  say  that  the  time  has  come  when  muskets  ought  to  go 
with  the  food. 

We  asked  the  governor  if  he  knew  of  any  relief  for 
these  people  except  through  the  charity  of  the  United 
States.  He  did  not.  We  asked  him,  "When  do  you 
think  the  time  will  come  that  these  people  can  be  placed 
in  a  position  of  self-support  ? "  He  replied  to  us,  with 
deep  feeling,  "  Only  the  good  God  or  the  great  govern- 
ment of  the  United  States  will  answer  that  question." 
I  hope  and  believe  that  the  good  God  by  the  great  gov- 
ernment of  the  United  States  will  answer  that  question. 

I  shall  refer  to  these  horrible  things  no  further.  They 
are  there.  God  pity  me,  I  have  seen  them ;  they  will 
remain  in  my  mind  forever  —  and  this  is  almost  the 
twentieth  century.  Christ  died  nineteen  hundred  years 
ago,  and  Spain  is  a  Christian  nation.  She  has  set  up 
more  crosses  in  more  lands,  beneath  more  skies,  and 
under  them  has  butchered  more  people  than  all  the 
other  nations  of  the  earth  combined.  Europe  may 
tolerate  her  existence  as  long  as  the  people  of  the  Old 
World  wish.  God  grant  that  before  another  Christmas 
morning  the  last  vestige  of  Spanish  tyranny  and  op- 
pression will  have  vanished  from  the  Western  Hemi- 
sphere !  .  .  . 


224 


APPENDIX  B 


The  time  for  action  has  come.  No  greater  reason  for 
it  can  exist  to-morrow  than  exists  to-day.  Every  hour's 
delay  only  adds  another  chapter  to  the  awful  story  of 
misery  and  death.  Only  one  power  can  intervene  — 
the  United  States  of  America.  Ours  is  the  one  great 
nation  in  the  world,  the  mother  of  American  republics. 
She  holds  a  position  of  trust  and  responsibility  toward 
the  peoples  and  affairs  of  the  whole  Western  Hemi- 
sphere. It  was  her  glorious  example  which  inspired 
the  patriots  of  Cuba  to  raise  the  flag  of  liberty  in  her 
eternal  hills.  We  cannot  refuse  to  accept  this  responsi- 
bility which  the  God  of  the  universe  has  placed  upon  us 
as  the  one  great  power  in  the  New  World.  We  must 
act !    What  shall  our  action  be  ? 

Against  the  intervention  of  the  United  States  in  this 
holy  cause  there  is  but  one  voice  of  dissent ;  that  voice 
is  the  voice  of  the  money-changers.  They  fear  war ! 
Not  because  of  any  Christian  or  ennobling  sentiment 
against  war  and  in  favor  of  peace,  but  because  they  fear 
that  a  declaration  of  war,  or  the  intervention  which 
might  result  in  war,  would  have  a  depressing  effect 
upon  the  stock  market.  Let  them  go.  They  do  not 
represent  American  sentiment ;  they  do  not  represent 
American  patriotism.  Let  them  take  their  chances  as 
they  can.  Their  weal  or  woe  is  of  but  little  importance 
to  the  liberty-loving  people  of  the  United  States.  They 
will  not  do  the  fighting  ;  their  blood  will  not  flow ;  they 
will  keep  on  dealing  in  options  on  human  life.  Let  the 
men  whose  loyalty  is  to  the  dollar  stand  aside  while  the 
men  whose  loyalty  is  to  the  flag  come  to  the  front. 
.  Mr.  President,  there  is  only  one  action  possible,  if 


APPENDIX  B 


225 


any  is  taken ;  that  is,  intervention  for  the  independence 
of  the  island.  But  we  cannot  intervene  and  save  Cuba 
without  the  exercise  of  force,  and  force  means  war; 
war  means  blood.  The  lowly  Nazarene  on  the  shores 
of  Galilee  preached  the  divine  doctrine  of  love,  "  Peace 
on  earth,  good  will  toward  men."  Not  peace  on  earth 
at  the  expense  of  liberty  and  humanity.  Not  good  will 
toward  men  who  despoil,  enslave,  degrade,  and  starve 
to  death  their  fellow-men.  I  believe  in  the  doctrine  of 
Christ.  I  believe  in  the  doctrine  of  peace;  but,  Mr. 
President,  men  must  have  liberty  before  there  can  come 
abiding  peace. 

Intervention  means  force.  Force  means  war.  War 
means  blood.  But  it  will  be  God's  force.  When  has  a 
battle  for  humanity  and  liberty  ever  been  won  except 
by  force  ?  What  barricade  of  wrong,  injustice,  and  op- 
pression has  ever  been  carried  except  by  force  ? 

Force  compelled  the  signature  of  unwilling  royalty  to 
the  great  Magna  Charta ;  force  put  life  into  the  Decla- 
ration of  Independence  and  made  effective  the  Emanci- 
pation Proclamation ;  force  beat  with  naked  hands  upon 
the  iron  gateway  of  the  Bastile  and  made  reprisal  in  one 
awful  hour  for  centuries  of  kingly  crime;  force  waved 
the  flag  of  revolution  over  Bunker  Hill  and  marked  the 
snows  of  Valley  Forge  with  blood-stained  feet;  force 
held  the  broken  line  of  Shiloh,  climbed  the  flame-swept 
hill  at  Chattanooga,  and  stormed  the  clouds  on  Lookout 
Heights ;  force  marched  with  Sherman  to  the  sea,  rode 
with  Sheridan  in  the  valley  of  the  Shenandoah,  and 
gave  Grant  victory  at  Appomattox;  force  saved  the 
Union,  kept  the  stars  in  the  flag,  made  "  niggers  "  men. 


226 


APPENDIX  B 


The  time  for  God's  force  has  come  again.  Let  the  im- 
passioned lips  of  American  patriots  once  more  take  up 
the  song :  — 

"  In  the  beauty  of  the  lilies,  Christ  was  born  across  the  sea, 
With  a  glory  in  His  bosom  that  transfigures  you  and  me  ; 
As  He  died  to  make  men  holy,  let  us  die  to  make  men  free, 
While  God  is  marching  on." 

Others  may  hesitate,  others  may  procrastinate,  others 
may  plead  for  further  diplomatic  negotiation,  which 
means  delay ;  but  for  me,  I  am  ready  to  act  now,  and 
for  my  action  I  am  ready  to  answer  to  my  conscience, 
my  country,  and  my  God. 

XVI 

THE  NEW  SOUTH 

By  Henry  Woodfin  Grady  (1850-1889) 

[Mr.  Grady's  now  famous  after-dinner  oration  was  delivered  be- 
fore the  New  England  Society  of  New  York  City,  on  the  occasion 
of  their  eighty-first  annual  banquet,  December  22,  1886.  It  was  as 
nearly  an  impromptu  effort  as  any  great  speech  can  be.] 

"There  was  a  South  of  slavery  and  secession  —  that 
South  is  dead.  There  is  a  South  of  union  and  freedom 
—  that  South,  thank  God,  is  living,  breathing,  growing 
every  hour."  These  words,  delivered  from  the  immortal 
lips  of  Benjamin  H.  Hill,  at  Tammany  Hall,  in  1866, 
true  then,  and  truer  now,  I  shall  make  my  text  to-night. 

Mr.  President  and  Gentlemen :  Let  me  express  to  you 
my  appreciation  of  the  kindness  by  which  I  am  per- 
mitted to  address  you.    I  make  this  abrupt  acknowledg- 


APPENDIX  B 


227 


ment  advisedly,  for  I  feel  that  if,  when  I  raised  my 
provincial  voice  in  this  ancient  and  august  presence,  I 
could  find  courage  for  no  more  than  the  opening  sen- 
tence, it  would  be  well  if,  in  that  sentence,  I  had  met  in 
a  rough  sense  my  obligation  as  a  guest,  and  had 
perished,  so  to  speak,  with  courtesy  on  my  Hps  and 
grace  in  my  heart. 

Permitted,  through  your  kindness,  to  catch  my  second 
wind,  let  me  say  that  I  appreciate  the  significance  of 
being  the  first  Southerner  to  speak  at  this  board,  which 
bears  the  substance,  if  it  surpasses  the  semblance  of 
original  New  England  hospitality,  and  honors  a  senti- 
ment that  in  turn  honors  you,  but  in  which  my  person- 
ality is  lost  and  the  compliment  to  my  people  made  plain. 

I  bespeak  the  utmost  stretch  of  your  courtesy  to- 
night. I  am  not  troubled  about  those  from  whom  I 
come.  You  remember  the  man  whose  wife  sent  him  to 
a  neighbor  with  a  pitcher  of  milk,  and  who,  tripping  on 
the  top  step,  fell,  with  such  casual  interruptions  as  the 
landings  afforded,  into  the  basement,  and,  while  picking 
himself  up,  had  the  pleasure  of  hearing  his  wife  call  out : 

"John,  did  you  break  the  pitcher?  " 

"No,  I  didn't,"  said  John,  "but  I  be  dinged  if  I 
don't." 

So,  while  those  who  call  to  me  from  behind  may  in- 
spire me  with  energy,  if  not  with  courage,  I  ask  an 
indulgent  hearing  from  you.  I  beg  that  you  will  bring 
your  full  faith  in  American  fairness  and  frankness  to 
judgment  upon  what  I  shall  say.  There  was  an  old 
preacher  once  who  told  some  boys  of  the  Bible  lesson 
he  was  going  to  read  in  the  morning.    The  boys,  find- 


228 


APPENDIX  B 


ing  the  place,  glued  together  the  connecting  pages. 
The  next  morning  he  read  on  the  bottom  of  one  page : 
"  When  Noah  was  one  hundred  and  twenty  years  old  he 
took  unto  himself  a  wife,  who  was"  —  then  turning  the 
page  —  "  one  hundred  and  forty  cubits  long,  forty  cubits 
wide,  built  of  gopher  wood,  and  covered  with  pitch  in- 
side and  out."  He  was  naturally  puzzled  at  this.  He 
read  it  again,  verified  it,  and  then  said,  "My  friends, 
this  is  the  first  time  I  ever  met  this  in  the  Bible,  but  I 
accept  it  as  an  evidence  of  the  assertion  that  we  are 
fearfully  and  wonderfully  made."  If  I  could  get  you  to 
hold  such  faith  to-night,  I  could  proceed  cheerfully  to  the 
task  I  otherwise  approach  with  a  sense  of  consecration. 

Pardon  me  one  word,  Mr.  President,  spoken  for  the 
sole  purpose  of  getting  into  the  volumes  that  go  out 
annually  freighted  with  the  rich  eloquence  of  your 
speakers  —  the  fact  that  the  Cavalier,  as  well  as  the 
Puritan,  was  on  the  continent  in  its  early  days,  and  that 
he  was  "  up  and  able  to  be  about."  I  have  read  your 
books  carefully  and  I  find  no  mention  of  that  fact,  which 
seems  to  me  an  important  one  for  preserving  a  sort  of 
historical  equilibrium,  if  for  nothing  else. 

Let  me  remind  you  that  the  Virginia  Cavalier  first 
challenged  France  on  this  continent ;  that  Cavalier  John 
Smith  gave  New  England  its  very  name,  and  was  so 
pleased  with  the  job  that  he  has  been  handing  his  own 
name  around  ever  since ;  and  that  while  Miles  Standish 
was  cutting  off  men's  ears  for  courting  a  girl  without 
her  parents'  consent,  and  forbade  men  to  kiss  their  wives 
on  Sunday,  the  Cavalier  was  courting  everything  in 
sight;  and  that  the  Almighty  had  vouchsafed  great 


APPENDIX  B 


229 


increase  to  the  Cavalier  colonies,  the  huts  in  the  wilder- 
ness being  as  full  as  the  nests  in  the  woods. 

But  having  incorporated  the  Cavalier  as  a  fact  in  your 
charming  little  book,  I  shall  let  him  work  out  his  own 
salvation,  as  he  has  always  done  with  engaging  gal- 
lantry, and  we  will  hold  no  controversy  as  to  his  merits. 
Why  should  we  ?  Neither  Puritan  nor  Cavalier  long 
survived  as  such.  The  virtues  and  traditions  of  both 
happily  still  live  for  the  inspiration  of  their  sons  and 
the  saving  of  the  old  fashion.  Both  Puritan  and  Cava- 
lier were  lost  in  the  storm  of  the  first  Revolution,  and 
the  American  citizen,  supplanting  both,  and  stronger 
than  either,  took  possession  of  the  republic  bought  by 
their  common  blood  and  fashioned  to  wisdom,  and 
charged  himself  with  teaching  men  government  and 
establishing  the  voice  of  the  people  as  the  voice  of  God. 

My  friend,  Dr.  Talmage,  has  told  you  that  the  typical 
American  has  yet  to  come.  Let  me  tell  you  that  he 
has  already  come.  Great  types,  like  valuable  plants, 
are  slow  to  flower  and  fruit.  But  from  the  union  of 
these  colonist  Puritans  and  Cavaliers,  from  the  straight- 
ening of  their  purposes  and  the  crossing  of  their  blood, 
slow  perfecting  through  a  century,  came  he  who  stands 
as  the  first  typical  American,  the  first  who  compre- 
hended within  himself  all  the  strength  and  gentleness, 
all  the  majesty  and  grace  of  this  republic,  Abraham 
Lincoln.  He  was  the  sum  of  Puritan  and  Cavalier; 
for  in  his  ardent  nature  were  fused  the  virtues  of  both, 
and  in  the  depths  of  his  great  soul  the  faults  of  both 
were  lost.  He  was  greater  than  Puritan,  greater  than 
Cavalier,  in  that  he  was  American,  and  that  in  his 


230 


APPENDIX  B 


homely  form  were  first  gathered  the  vast  and  thrilling 
forces  of  his  ideal  government  charging  it  with  such 
tremendous  meaning,  and  so  elevating  it  above  human 
suffering,  that  martyrdom,  though  infamously  aimed, 
came  as  a  fitting  crown  to  a  life  consecrated,  from  the 
cradle,  to  human  liberty.  Let  us,  each  cherishing  the 
traditions  and  honoring  his  fathers,  build  with  reverent 
hands  to  the  type  of  his  simple  but  sublime  life,  in 
which  all  types  are  honored ;  and  in  our  common  glory 
as  Americans  there  will  be  plenty  and  some  to  spare 
for  your  forefathers  and  for  mine. 

In  speaking  to  the  toast  with  which  you  have  honored 
me,  I  accept  the  term,  "The  New  South,"  as  in  no 
sense  disparaging  to  the  old.  Dear  to  me,  sir,  is  the 
home  of  my  childhood  and  the  traditions  of  my  people. 
I  would  not,  if  I  could,  dim  the  glory  they  won  in  peace 
and  war,  or  by  word  or  deed  take  aught  from  the  splen- 
dor and  grace  of  their  civilization,  never  equaled,  and 
perhaps  never  to  be  equaled  in  its  chivalric  strength 
and  grace.  There  is  a  New  South,  not  through  protest 
against  the  old,  but  because  of  new  conditions,  new 
adjustments,  and,  if  you  please,  new  ideas  and  aspira- 
tions. It  is  to  this  that  I  address  myself,  and  to  the 
consideration  of  which  I  hasten,  lest  it  become  the  Old 
South  before  I  get  to  it.  Age  does  not  endow  all  things 
with  strength  and  virtue,  nor  are  all  new  things  to  be 
despised.  The  shoemaker  who  put  over  his  door,  "John 
Smith's  shop,  founded  1760,"  was  more  than  matched 
by  his  young  rival  across  the  street  who  hung  out  this 
sign:  "Bill  Jones.  Established  1886.  No  old  stock 
kept  in  this  shop." 


APPENDIX  B 


231 


Dr.  Talmage  has  drawn  for  you,  with  a  master  hand, 
the  picture  of  your  returning  armies.  He  has  told  you 
how,  in  the  pomp  and  circumstance  of  war,  they  came 
back  to  you,  marching  with  proud  and  victorious  tread, 
reading  their  glory  in  a  nation's  eyes !  Will  you  bear 
with  me  while  I  tell  you  of  another  army  that  sought 
its  home  at  the  close  of  the  late  war  ?  An  army  that 
marched  home  in  defeat  and  not  in  victory — in  pathos 
and  not  in  splendor,  but  in  glory  that  equaled  yours, 
and  to  hearts  as  loving  as  ever  welcomed  heroes  home. 
Let  me  picture  to  you  the  footsore  Confederate  soldier, 
as,  buttoning  up  in  his  faded  gray  jacket  the  parole 
which  was  to  bear  testimony  to  his  children  of  his  fidelity 
and  faith,  he  turned  his  face  southward  from  Appo- 
mattox in  April,  1865.  Think  of  him  as  ragged,  half- 
starved,  heavy-hearted,  enfeebled  by  want  and  wounds ; 
having  fought  to  exhaustion,  he  surrenders  his  gun, 
wrings  the  hands  of  his  comrades  in  silence,  and,  lifting 
his  tear-stained  and  pallid  face  for  the  last  time  to  the 
graves  that  dot  the  old  Virginia  hills,  pulls  his  gray  cap 
over  his  brow  and  begins  the  slow  and  painful  journey. 
What  does  he  find  ?  —  let  me  ask  you  who  went  to  your 
homes  eager  to  find,  in  the  welcome  you  had  justly 
earned,  full  payment  for  four  years'  sacrifice  —  what 
does  he  find  when,  having  followed  the  battle-stained 
cross  against  overwhelming  odds,  dreading  death  not 
half  so  much  as  surrender,  he  reaches  the  home  he  left 
so  prosperous  and  beautiful  ?  He  finds  his  house  in 
ruins,  his  farm  devastated,  his  slaves  free,  his  stock 
killed,  his  barn  empty,  his  trade  destroyed,  his  money 
worthless ;  his  social  system,  feudal  in  its  magnificence, 


232 


APPENDIX  B 


swept  away ;  his  people  without  law  or  legal  status ; 
his  comrades  slain,  and  the  burdens  of  others  heavy  on 
his  shoulders.  Crushed  by  defeat,  his  very  traditions 
gone;  without  money,  credit,  employment,  material 
training;  and  besides  all  this,  confronted  with  the  grav- 
est problem  that  ever  met  human  intelligence  —  the 
establishment  of  a  status  for  the  vast  body  of  his  liber- 
ated slaves. 

What  does  he  do  —  this  hero  in  gray,  with  a  heart  of 
gold?  Does  he  sit  down  in  sullenness  and  despair? 
Not  for  a  day.  Surely  God,  who  had  stripped  him  of 
his  prosperity,  inspired  him  in  his  adversity.  As  ruin 
was  never  before  so  overwhelming,  never  was  restoration 
swifter.  The  soldier  stepped  from  the  trenches  into  the 
furrow ;  horses  that  had  charged  Federal  guns  marched 
before  the  plow ;  and  the  fields  that  ran  red  with  human 
blood  in  April  were  green  with  the  harvest  in  June; 
women  reared  in  luxury  cut  up  their  dresses  and  made 
breeches  for  their  husbands,  and,  with  a  patience  and 
heroism  that  fit  women  always  as  a  garment,  gave  their 
hands  to  work.  There  was  little  bitterness  in  all  this. 
Cheerfulness  and  frankness  prevailed.  "Bill  Arp" 
struck  the  keynote  when  he  said,  "  Well,  I  killed  as 
many  of  them  as  they  did  of  me,  and  now  I  am  going 
to  work."  Or  the  soldier,  returning  home  after  defeat 
and  roasting  some  corn  on  the  roadside,  who  made  the 
remark  to  his  comrade,  "  You  may  leave  the  South  if 
you  want  to;  but  I  am  going  to  Sandersville,  kiss  my 
wife,  and  raise  a  crop,  and  if  the  Yankees  fool  with  me 
any  more  I  will  whip  'em  again."  I  want  to  say  to  Gen- 
eral Sherman  —  who  is  considered  an  able  man  in  our 


APPENDIX  B 


233 


parts,  though  some  people  think  he  is  kind  of  careless 
about  fire  —  that  from  the  ashes  he  left  us  in  1864  we 
have  raised  a  brave  and  beautiful  city ;  that  somehow  or 
other  we  have  caught  the  sunshine  in  the  bricks  and 
mortar  of  our  homes,  and  have  builded  therein  not  one 
ignoble  prejudice  or  memory. 

But  in  all  this  what  have  we  accomplished  ?  What  is 
the  sum  of  our  work  ?  We  have  found  out  that  in  the 
general  summary  the  free  negro  counts  more  than  he 
did  as  a  slave.  We  have  planted  the  schoolhouse  on 
the  hilltop  and  made  it  free  to  white  and  black.  We 
have  sowed  towns  and  cities  in  the  place  of  theories, 
and  put  business  above  politics.  We  have  learned  that 
the  $400,000,000  annually  received  from  our  cotton  crop 
will  make  us  rich,  when  the  supplies  that  make  it  are 
home-raised.  We  have  reduced  the  commercial  rate  of 
interest  from  twenty-four  to  four  per  cent,  and  are  float- 
ing four  per  cent  bonds.  We  have  learned  that  one 
Northern  immigrant  is  worth  fifty  foreigners,  and  have 
smoothed  the  path  to  the  southward,  wiped  out  the  place 
where  Mason  and  Dixon's  line  used  to  be,  and  hung  out 
our  latchstring  to  you  and  yours. 

We  have  reached  the  point  that  marks  perfect  har- 
mony in  every  household,  when  the  husband  confesses 
that  the  pies  which  his  wife  cooks  are  as  good  as  those 
his  mother  used  to  bake;  and  we  admit  that  the  sun 
shines  as  brightly  and  the  moon  as  softly  as  it  did  "be- 
fore the  war."  We  have  established  thrift  in  the  city 
and  country.  We  have  fallen  in  love  with  work.  We 
have  restored  comforts  to  homes  from  which  culture  and 
elegance  never  departed.    We  have  let  economy  take 


234 


APPENDIX  B 


root  and  spread  among  us  as  rank  as  the  crab-grass 
which  sprung  from  Sherman's  cavalry  camps,  until  we 
are  ready  to  lay  odds  on  the  Georgia  Yankee,  as  he 
manufactures  relics  of  the  battlefield  in  a  one-story 
shanty,  and  squeezes  pure  olive  oil  out  of  his  cotton 
seed,  against  any  down-easter  that  ever  swapped  wooden 
nutmegs  for  flannel  sausages  in  the  valley  of  Vermont. 

Above  all,  we  know  that  we  have  achieved  in  these 
"  piping  times  of  peace  "  a  fuller  independence  for  the 
South  than  that  which  our  fathers  sought  to  win  in 
the  forum  by  their  eloquence,  or  compel  on  the  field  by 
their  swords. 

It  is  a  rare  privilege,  sir,  to  have  had  a  part,  however 
humble,  in  this  work.  Never  was  nobler  duty  confided 
to  human  hands  than  the  uplifting  and  upbuilding  of  the 
prostrate  and  bleeding  South,  misguided,  perhaps,  but 
beautiful  in  her  suffering,  and  honest,  brave,  and  gener- 
ous always.  In  the  record  of  her  social,  industrial,  and 
political  restoration  we  await  with  confidence  the  verdict 
of  the  world. 

But  what  of  the  negro  ?  Have  we  solved  the  problem 
he  presents,  or  progressed  in  honor  and  equity  toward 
the  solution  ?  Let  the  record  speak  to  the  point.  No 
section  shows  a  more  prosperous  laboring  population 
than  the  negroes  of  the  South ;  none  in  fuller  sympathy 
with  the  employing  and  land-owning  class.  He  shares 
our  school  fund,  has  the  fullest  protection  of  our  laws, 
and  the  friendship  of  our  people.  Self-interest,  as  well 
as  honor,  demands  that  they  should  have  this.  Our  fu- 
ture, our  very  existence,  depends  upon  our  working  out 
this  problem  in  full  and  exact  justice.    We  understand 


APPENDIX  B 


235 


that  when  Lincoln  signed  the  Emancipation  Proclama- 
tion, your  victory  was  assured ;  for  he  then  committed 
you  to  the  cause  of  human  liberty,  against  which  the 
arms  of  man  cannot  prevail ;  while  those  of  our  states- 
men who  trusted  to  make  slavery  the  cornerstone  of  the 
Confederacy  doomed  us  to  defeat  as  far  as  they  could, 
committing  us  to  a  cause  that  reason  could  not  defend 
or  the  sword  maintain  in  the  sight  of  advancing  civiliza- 
tion. Had  Mr.  Toombs  said,  which  he  did  not  say,  that 
he  would  call  the  roll  of  his  slaves  at  the  foot  of  Bunker 
Hill,  he  would  have  been  foolish,  for  he  might  have 
known  that  whenever  slavery  became  entangled  in  war 
it  must  perish,  and  that  the  chattel  in  human  flesh  ended 
forever  in  New  England  when  your  fathers  —  not  to  be 
blamed  for  parting  with  what  did  not  pay  —  sold  their 
slaves  to  our  fathers  —  not  to  be  praised  for  knowing  a 
paying  thing  when  they  saw  it. 

The  relations  of  the  Southern  people  with  the  negro 
are  close  and  cordial.  We  remember  with  what  fidelity 
for  four  years  he  guarded  our  defenseless  women  and 
children,  whose  husbands  and  fathers  were  fighting 
against  his  freedom.  To  his  credit  be  it  said  that  when- 
ever he  struck  a  blow  for  his  own  liberty  he  fought  in 
open  battle,  and  when  at  last  he  raised  his  black  and 
humble  hands  that  the  shackles  might  be  struck  off, 
those  hands  were  innocent  of  wrong  against  his  helpless 
charges,  and  worthy  to  be  taken  in  loving  grasp  by 
every  man  who  honors  loyalty  and  devotion. 

Ruffians  have  maltreated  him,  rascals  have  misled  him, 
philanthropists  established  a  bank  for  him ;  but  the 
South  with  the  North  protest  against  injustice  to  this 


236 


APPENDIX  B 


simple  and  sincere  people.  To  liberty  and  enfranchise- 
ment is  as  far  as  the  law  can  carry  the  negro.  The  rest 
must  be  left  to  conscience  and  common  sense.  It  should 
be  left  to  those  among  whom  his  lot  is  cast,  with  whom 
he  is  indissolubly  connected,  and  whose  prosperity  de- 
pends upon  their  possessing  his  intelligent  sympathy 
and  confidence.  Faith  has  been  kept  with  him  in  spite 
of  calumnious  assertions  to  the  contrary  by  those  who 
assume  to  speak  for  us,  or  by  frank  opponents.  Faith 
will  be  kept  with  him  in  the  future,  if  the  South  holds 
her  reason  and  integrity. 

But  have  we  kept  faith  with  you  ?  In  the  fullest  sense, 
yes.  When  Lee  surrendered  —  I  don't  say  when  John- 
ston surrendered,  because  I  understand  he  still  alludes 
to  the  time  when  he  met  General  Sherman  last  as  the 
time  when  he  "  determined  to  abandon  any  further  prose- 
cution of  the  struggle  "  — when  Lee  surrendered,  I  say, 
and  Johnston  quit,  the  South  became,  and  has  been, 
loyal  to  the  Union.  We  fought  hard  enough  to  know 
that  we  were  whipped,  and  in  perfect  frankness  accepted 
as  final  the  arbitrament  of  the  sword  to  which  we  had 
appealed.  The  South  found  her  jewel  in  the  toad's  head 
of  defeat.  The  shackles  that  had  held  her  in  narrow 
limitations  fell  forever  when  the  shackles  of  the  negro 
slave  were  broken. 

Under  the  old  regime  the  negroes  were  slaves  to  the 
South,  the  South  was  a  slave  to  the  system.  The  old 
plantation,  with  its  simple  police  regulations  and  its  feu- 
dal habit,  was  the  only  type  possible  under  slavery.  Thus 
was  gathered  in  the  hands  of  a  splendid  and  chivalric 
oligarchy  the  substance  that  should  have  been  diffused 


APPENDIX  B 


237 


among  the  people,  as  the  rich  blood,  under  certain  arti- 
ficial conditions,  is  gathered  at  the  heart,  filling  that  to 
affluent  rupture,  but  leaving  the  body  chill  and  colorless. 

The  old  South  rested  everything  on  slavery  and  agri- 
culture, unconscious  that  these  could  neither  give  nor 
maintain  healthy  growth.  The  new  South  presents  a 
perfect  democracy,  the  oligarchs  leading  in  the  popular 
movement  —  a  social  system  compact  and  closely  knitted, 
less  splendid  on  the  surface  but  stronger  at  the  core ; 
a  hundred  farms  for  every  plantation,  fifty  homes  for 
every  palace,  and  a  diversified  industry  that  meets  the 
complex  needs  of  this  complex  age. 

The  new  South  is  enamored  of  her  new  work.  Her 
soul  is  stirred  with  the  breath  of  a  new  life.  The  light 
of  a  grander  day  is  falling  fair  on  her  face.  She  is 
thrilling  with  the  consciousness  of  a  growing  power  and 
prosperity.  As  she  stands  upright,  full-statured  and 
equal  among  the  people  of  the  earth,  breathing  the  keen 
air  and  looking  out  upon  the  expanding  horizon,  she 
understands  that  her  emancipation  came  because  in  the 
inscrutable  wisdom  of  God  her  honest  purpose  was 
crossed  and  her  brave  armies  were  beaten. 

This  is  said  in  no  spirit  of  time-serving  or  apology. 
The  South  has  nothing  for  which  to  apologize.  She 
believes  that  the  late  struggle  between  the  States  was 
war  and  not  rebellion,  revolution  and  not  conspiracy, 
and  that  her  convictions  were  as  honest  as  yours.  I 
should  be  unjust  to  the  dauntless  spirit  of  the  South  and 
to  my  own  convictions  if  I  did  not  make  this  plain  in 
this  presence.  The  South  has  nothing  to  take  back. 
In  my  native  town  of  Athens  is  a  monument  that  crowns 


238 


APPENDIX  B 


its  central  hills  —  a  plain,  white  shaft.  Deep  cut  into 
its  shining  side  is  a  name  dear  to  me  above  the  names 
of  men,  that  of  a  brave  and  simple  man  who  died  in  a 
brave  and  simple  faith.  Not  for  all  the  glories  of  New 
England  —  from  Plymouth  Rock  all  the  way  —  would 
I  exchange  the  heritage  he  left  me  in  his  soldier's  death. 
To  the  feet  of  that  shaft  I  shall  send  my  children's  chil- 
dren to  reverence  him  who  ennobled  their  name  with 
his  heroic  blood.  But,  sir,  speaking  from  the  shadow 
of  that  memory,  which  I  honor  as  I  do  nothing  else  on 
earth,  I  say  that  the  cause  in  which  he  suffered  and  for 
which  he  gave  his  life  was  adjudged  by  higher  and 
fuller  wisdom  than  his  or  mine,  and  I  am  glad  that  the 
omniscient  God  held  the  balance  of  battle  in  His  Al- 
mighty Hand,  and  that  human  slavery  was  swept  for- 
ever from  American  soil  —  the  American  Union  saved 
from  the  wreck  of  war. 

This  message,  Mr.  President,  comes  to  you  from  con- 
secrated ground.  Every  foot  of  the  soil  about  the  city 
in  which  I  live  is  sacred  as  a  battle-ground  of  the  repub- 
lic. Every  hill  that  invests  it  is  hallowed  to  you  by  the 
blood  of  your  brothers  who  died  for  your  victory,  and 
doubly  hallowed  to  us  by  the  blood  of  those  who  died 
hopeless,  but  undaunted,  in  defeat  —  sacred  soil  to  all  of 
us,  rich  with  memories  that  make  us  purer  and  stronger 
and  better,  silent  but  stanch  witnesses  in  its  red  deso- 
lation of  the  matchless  valor  of  American  hearts  and 
the  deathless  glory  of  American  arms  —  speaking  an 
eloquent  witness,  in  its  white  peace  and  prosperity,  to 
the  indissoluble  union  of  American  States  and  the  im- 
perishable brotherhood  of  the  American  people. 


APPENDIX  B 


239 


Now  what  answer  has  New  England  to  this  message  ? 
Will  she  permit  the  prejudice  of  war  to  remain  in  the 
hearts  of  the  conquerors  ?  Will  she  transmit  this  preju- 
dice to  the  next  generation,  that  in  their  hearts,  which 
never  felt  the  generous  ardor  of  conflict,  it  may  perpetu- 
ate itself  ?  Will  she  withhold,  save  in  strained  courtesy, 
the  hand  which,  straight  from  his  soldier's  heart,  Grant 
offered  to  Lee  at  Appomattox?  Will  she  make  the 
vision  of  a  restored  and  happy  people,  which  gathered 
above  the  couch  of  your  dying  captain,  filling  his  heart 
with  grace,  touching  his  lips  with  praise  and  glorifying 
his  path  to  the  grave;  will  she  make  this  vision,  on 
which  the  last  sigh  of  his  expiring  soul  breathed  a  bene- 
diction, a  cheat  and  a  delusion  ?  If  she  does,  the  South, 
never  abject  in  asking  for  comradeship,  must  accept 
with  dignity  its  refusal;  but  if  she  does  not  —  if  she 
accepts  with  frankness  and  sincerity  this  message  of 
good  will  and  friendship,  then  will  the  prophecy  of 
Webster,  delivered  in  this  very  Society  forty  years  ago, 
amid  tremendous  applause,  be  verified  in  its  fullest  and 
final  sense,  when  he  said,  "  Standing  hand  to  hand  and 
clasping  hands,  we  should  remain  united  as  we  have  for 
sixty  years,  citizens  of  the  same  country,  members  of 
the  same  government,  united  all,  united  now,  and  united 
forever.  There  have  been  difficulties,  contentions,  and 
controversies,  but  I  tell  you  that  in  my  judgment 

" '  Those  opposed  eyes, 
Which,  like  the  meteors  of  a  troubled  heaven, 
All  of  one  nature,  of  one  substance  bred, 
Did  lately  meet  in  th1  intestine  shock, 
Shall  now,  in  mutual,  well-beseeming  ranks 
March  all  one  way.' " 


APPENDIX  C 


ONE  HUNDRED  ORATION  SUBJECTS,1  WITH  BRIEF 
HINTS  FOR  TREATMENT 

1.  The  Saloon  in  Society, 

Article  in  Atlantic  Monthly,  Vol.  59,  p.  86. 

2.  The  Good  Old  Times. 

When  a  fair  comparison  is  made,  have  we  progressed 
so  rapidly  as  is  commonly  asserted  ?  While  we 
have  gained  much,  have  we  not  also  lost  much  ? 
Is  all  change  progress  ?  Is  it  wholesome  never  to 
"  have  time  "  ?  Have  health,  morals,  manners, 
faith,  fidelity,  nobility,  increased  in  proportion  to 
material  advancement  ? 

The  other  side  of  the  question  also  presents  strong 
arguments. 

3.  Young  Fogies. 

See  dictionary.  "  Old  men  for  counsel,  young  men 
for  war."  Certain  conservative  tendencies  in  the 
young  are  quite  marked.    Not  all  old  men  are 

1  It  should  be  remembered  that  subjects  are  not  necessarily  titles.  See 
pp.  62-64. 

These  hints  are  not  intended  to  serve  as  outlines,  but  are  designed  to 
stimulate  thought ;  for  this  reason  many  of  the  ideas  take  the  form  of 
questions. 

240 


APPENDIX  C 


241 


"slow,"  and  not  all  young  men  are  progressive. 
Youth  is  no  guarantee  of  energy.  Young  minds 
feeding  themselves  on  doubts  and  sneers  are  piti- 
able. In  youth  we  look  for  buoyancy,  hope,  faith, 
cheer,  "vim,"  and  open-heartedness.  What  in- 
fluences now  at  work  make  for  "fogeyism  "  in  the 
young  ?  Are  such  influences  wholesome  ?  If  not, 
what  are  the  best  counteractives  ? 

4.  Not  to  Thyself  Alone. 

Political  economy  teaches  man's  dependence  upon 
man.  The  highest  recognition  and  fulfillment  of 
this  large  obligation  is  characteristic  of  the  ideal 
life.    Examine  lives  of  great  men  for  examples. 

5.  Free  Speech. 

Strictly  speaking,  there  can  be  no  free  speech  con- 
sistent with  the  welfare  of  society.  Note  the  ways 
in  which  free  speech  can  work  harm.  How  can 
we  remedy  the  evil  without  going  to  the  opposite 
extreme?  Our  present  "license"  is  one  of  the 
results  of  the  French  Revolution,  says  Bishop 
H.  C.  Potter. 

6.  The  City  a  Menace  to  the  Republic. 

The  Twentieth  Century  City,  Strong.  Democracy 
has  failed  in  large  cities  because  of  the  great 
influx  of  foreigners.  Moral  questions.  Social 
questions.  Strong  drink  a  large  factor  in  city 
life.  What  part  will  the  public  school  play  in 
reform  ?  Is  the  press  too  venal  to  help  ?  Is  the 
Church  prepared  to  help  ? 


242 


APPENDIX  C 


7.  Blood  Money. 

In  how  far  does  money  carry  with  it  the  taint  of  ill- 
getting?  Is  there  any  obligation  resting  upon 
children  to  restore  ill-gotten  gains  inherited  from 
parents  ?  If  money  is  used  to  get  other  money 
dishonestly,  can  it  bring  blessing  ?  Can  a  city, 
a  state,  a  nation,  afford  to  take  blood  money  ? 
Consider  the  case  of  Judas. 

8.  My  Country  Right  or  Wrong. 

Is  this  a  safe  motto  ?  How  far  may  it  be  wisely 
followed  ?  How  trustworthy  is  individual  opinion 
as  against  national  policies  ?  To  what  extent 
may  a  good  citizen  carry  his  protest  against  his 
nation's  course  ?  Does  patriotism  demand  the 
surrender  of  conviction  ?  Are  majorities  oftener 
right  than  wrong  ? 

9.  The  True  Aaron  Burr. 

In  the  light  of  recent  books,  the  true  character  of 
the  famous  duelist  is  being  studied  more  generally 
than  ever.  What  grounds,  if  any,  are  there  for 
a  revision  of  public  opinion  on  his  case  ? 

10.  The  Influence  of  Art  upon  Morals. 
Distinguish  between  prudery  and  modesty.  Is 

contemporary  art  calculated  to  improve  public 
morals  ?  Is  it  true  that  "  to  the  pure  all  things 
are  pure"?  Is  the  nude  merely  a  question  of 
custom  ? 

11.  Crossing  the  Rubicon. 

A  lesson  from  Caesar's  careful  deliberation  and 
final  decision.    Rubicon  days  come  to  all  of  us. 


APPENDIX  C 


243 


"There  is  a  tide  in  the  affairs  of  men,"  etc.  The 
decision  is  often,  unconsciously,  a  result  of  past 
life.  Value  of  a  decided  character.  How  de- 
cisions reach  from  Gaul  to  Rome.  "It  might 
have  been."  Each  side  of  the  Rubicon  has  its 
duties  —  choice  must  be  not  only  made,  but  also 
sustained. 

12.  The  Patriot  Schoolmaster. 

Nathan  Hale.  See  biographies.  Note  how  fidelity 
to  small  duties  led  up  to  his  triumphant  death. 
He  could  not  have  given  so  much  to  his  country, 
had  he  lived  a  hundred  lives,  as  he  gave  in  his 
heroic  words  before  his  execution. 

13.  The  Golden  Mean. 

The  importance  of  a  broad  view  of  life  and  of  its 
issues.  The  one-sidedness  of  the  extremist 
Truth  walks  on  middle  ground. 

14.  A  Panacea  for  Poverty. 

Many  solutions  proposed.  Will  there  always  be  a 
class  known  as  the  poor  ?  Article  by  Dr.  Rains- 
ford,  "  What  can  We  do  for  the  Poor  ? "  Forum, 
April,  1 89 1.  Are  preventive  or  remedial  measures 
better?  See  The  Burden  of  Poverty,  C.  F.  Dole, 
Huebsch,  1912;  also,  article:  "The  Prevention  of 
Poverty",  B.  B.  Burritt,  Survey,  Apr.  15,  1927. 

15.  The  Traitor-patriot. 

The  two  sides  of  Benedict  Arnold's  career.  Trace 
the  influences  which  culminated  in  the  sad  turning- 
point.  How  far  did  his  repentance  go  to  atone 
for  his  treason  ? 


244 


APPENDIX  C 


1 6.  Does  Education  bless  all  Men? 

Some  men  should  not  be  educated,  declares  a  well- 
known  public  man.  Under  what  circumstances 
could  education  prove  a  curse  ?  Does  this  apply- 
merely  to  partial  education  ?  Can  all-round  edu- 
cation ever  be  a  curse  ? 

17.  The  University  Idea. 

Foreign  compared  with  American  universities. 
Wide  variety  in  America.  Sketch  what  you 
conceive  to  be  the  true  idea.  Support  your 
position.  Difficulties  in  America.  Is  American 
educational  thought  gradually  agreeing  upon  an 
American  university  idea  ?  Is  any  American 
university  more  nearly  than  others  approaching 
the  true  ideal? 

18.  The  Quest  for  the  Unknown. 

How  it  has  inspired  inventors  and  discoverers. 
Examples.  Much  still  remains  unknown.  Re- 
wards awaiting  the  discoverer  and  inventor.  A 
lesson  of  patience. 

19.  Paternalism. 

Consider  the  errors  of  the  extreme  socialist,  who 
dreams  of  a  time  when  the  government  will 
control  all  departments  of  labor  and  adminis- 
tration.   The  opposite  of  individualism. 

20.  The  Aristocracy  of  Talent. 

What  is  talent?  Not  confined  to  the  aristocracy  of 
blood.  Why  this  fact  is  a  matter  for  hopefulness. 
How  fully  does  the  world  recognize  this  aris- 


APPENDIX  C 


245 


tocracy  ?  How  does  it  rule  ?  Illustrate  how 
brain  controls  labor,  and  how  the  originator  in 
any  department  is  the  world's  ruler. 

21.  Circles. 

See  Emerson's  Essay  on  "  Circles." 

22.  "Gumption." 

An  oration  in  praise  of  common  sense  and  its  un- 
common utility  in  all  affairs  of  life.  Show  how 
that  nothing  can  take  its  place. 

23.  An  Uncrowned  Queen. 

A  eulogy  of  Miss  Jane  Addams. 

24.  Mental  Indigestion. 

Most  men  read  too  much,  and  do  not  digest  what 
they  read.  We  are  losing  taste  for  profound 
books.  "  Education  is  learning  to  read,"  says 
William  Cowper  Conant.  If  we  cannot  digest 
and  assimilate  what  we  read,  why  read  at  all  ? 
What  is  the  remedy  ?    See  p.  65  et  seq. 

25.  The  "Honor  System"  in  Examinations. 
Review  of  the  various  college  systems.     Can  all 

students  be  trusted  ?  Explain  the  "  honor  sys- 
tem "  (Lawrenceville,  for  example).  Defects  and 
merits. 

26.  The  Educated  Criminal. 

What  forces  tend  to  criminality  ?  How  does  edu- 
cation operate  with  respect  to  such  forces  ?  Can 
education  be  depended  upon  to  counteract  crime  ? 
How  does  it  come  to  pass  that  educated  men 
prove  to  be  the  most  dangerous  criminals  when 
once  they  turn  to  crime  ? 


246 


APPENDIX  C 


27.  Good  Men  as  Accomplices  of  the  Bad. 

How  the  apathetic,  stay-away-from-the-polls  citizen 
becomes  the  accomplice  of  the  bad  citizen  by 
turning  over  to  him  the  governmental  power. 

28.  Charity,  Wise  and  Otherwise. 

Only  that  charity  is  wise  which  helps  the  recipient 
to  help  himself.  The  mischief  of  fostering  de- 
pendence and  pauperism. 

29.  The  American  Mechanic. 

His  career,  his  trials,  his  triumphs,  his  rewards,  and 
his  future.    Has  he  had  his  due  ? 

30.  Old  Stonewall. 

A  eulogy  of  the  personal  character  and  military 
genius  of  Stonewall  Jackson. 

31.  The  Woman  of  the  South. 

Her  noble  spirit  in  devoting  herself  to  the  rehabili- 
tation of  her  land  after  the  horrors  of  war.  Her 
influence  which  heartened  the  men  of  the  South 
to  take  up  the  same  duty.    See  p.  231. 

32.  The  Ethics  of  War. 

What  provocations  can  justify  war?  With  what 
spirit  should  it  be  carried  on  ?  Compare  late 
wars  with  those  of  former  years.  Has  the  spirit 
of  humanity  progressed  ?  Consider  the  attitude 
of  the  victor  toward  the  vanquished. 

33.  The  Hour  and  the  Man. 

Great  crises  in  the  history  of  the  world  have  gener- 
ally found  some  man  of  towering  ability  to  meet 
the  need  of  the  hour.  The  reciprocal  influence 
of  great  events  and  great  men. 


APPENDIX  C 


247 


34.  Rub  or  Rust. 

An  oration  of  analogies.  Labor  or  decay.  Ad- 
vance or  retrograde.    Conquer  or  be  a  slave. 

35.  The  Tenth  Legion. 

Lessons  from  Caesar's  famous  band. 

36.  A  Womanly  Queen  —  a  Queenly  Woman. 
Queen  Victoria.    Special  reference  to  her  home  life 

and  training  of  her  family.  Her  influence  upon 
the  world's  womanhood. 

37.  Woman  and  War. 

Her  services  at  home  and  in  the  field.  Her  inspi- 
rational attitude.  Examples  from  history :  the 
ladies  of  Weinburg,  Joan  of  Arc,  Florence  Night- 
ingale, Edith  Cavell,  Mabel  Boardman,  and  others. 

38.  The  Three  Duties  of  Man. 

To  himself,  to  fellow-man,  to  God.  These  duties 
can  never  really  conflict,  though  at  times  they 
may  seem  to  do  so.  In  proportion  as  each  is 
properly  met,  the  others  will  also  be  performed. 
Illustrate.    An  all-round  conception  of  duty. 

39.  The  Right  to  Work. 

See  The  New  Right,  by  "  Golden  Rule "  Jones. 
This  is  one  of  the  natural  rights  of  man.  Self- 
support,  and  the  support  of  those  dependent 
upon  him,  involve  labor.  No  system  can  be 
right  which  makes  it  increasingly  difficult  for  an 
honest,  efficient  man  to  find  employment.  What 
forces  seem  to  militate  against  this  right  ?  Are 
strikers  justified  in  taking  from  others  the  right 
to  work  ? 


248  appendix  c 

40.  The  Tramp. 

Tramping  with  Tramps,  Flynt;  "  How  Men  become 
Tramps,"  Flynt,  Century  Magazine,  Vol.  28,  p.  41. 
Is  the  tramp  responsible  for  himself  ?  If  so, 
why  ?  What  part  has  society  played  in  making 
men  tramps  ?  How  can  society  prevent  the 
making  of  more  tramps  ?  What  can  be  done  for 
the  tramp  ?  Whose  business  is  it  ?  Are  all 
tramps  of  the  same  sort?  See  The  Hobo,  Nels 
Anderson,  University  of  Chicago  Press,  1923. 

41.  Cross  and  Crescent. 

An  outline  of  the  rise  of  Christianity  and  the  de- 
cline of  Islam.  What  are  the  signs  of  the  pres- 
ent times  ? 

42.  The  Survival  of  the  Fittest. 

Illustrated  in  the  mineral,  vegetable,  animal,  and 
spiritual  kingdoms. 

43.  Ignorance  a  Menace  to  the  Republic 

Our  great  political  controversies  are  decided  by  the 
ballot.  The  ignorant  voter  makes  vicious  legis- 
lation and  incompetent  office-holders  possible. 
Since  republican  principles  require  an  intelligent 
comprehension  in  order  to  their  wide  acceptance, 
can  the  illiterate  voter  wisely  meet  the  duties  and 
questions  that  confront  him  ?   The  remedy. 

44.  Drifting. 

Purposeless  lives  are  drifting  vessels.  The  start; 
the  storm  ;  the  disaster  ;  drifting  ;  the  end.  What 
purposes  are  worthy  to  shape  the  courses  of  our 
lives  ? 


APPENDIX  C 


249 


45.  The  Duality  of  Self. 

Every  man  feels  within  himself,  more  or  less  fully, 
both  "Dr.  Jekyll  and  Mr.  Hyde."  Which  is 
the  true  self  ?    This  is  a  matter  of  choice. 

46.  Destiny  versus  Choice. 

Our  future  is  not  controlled  by  our  stars,  but  by 
ourselves.  Consciousness  of  the  power  of  choice. 
The  ancient  world  bound  by  status.  Illustrate 
how  that  neither  excellence  nor  shame  are  purely 
gifts  of  destiny,  but  depend  largely  upon  our  own 
desires  and  endeavors. 

47.  Fear. 

Analyze  it.  Various  kinds,  and  various  aspects. 
How  it  has  hindered  progress.  How  it  has  pre- 
served much  that  is  best.  How  may  it  be  con- 
trolled so  as  to  operate  only  for  man's  good  ? 

48.  Doubt,  an  Element  of  Intellectual  Progress. 
Credulity  versus  doubt.    Doubt  not  mere  unbelief. 

Reasonable  grounds  for  doubt.  No  discoveries 
without  doubt  as  to  accepted  explanations  of 
things.  When  doubt  ceases  to  be  a  virtue. 
Doubt  must  be  controlled  by  testimony. 

49.  The  Pessimist. 

Define.  Analyze  the  mental  states  productive  of 
pessimism.  How  is  it  related  to  unbiased  truth  ? 
Does  it  paralyze  or  prosper  the  activities  of  man  ? 
Effect  upon  others.  The  final  type  of  spirit  into 
which  pessimism  deteriorates.  Criticism  to  be 
valuable  must  be  more  than  destructive  —  it  must 
be  constructive. 


APPENDIX  C 


Mt.  Vernon. 

Suggestions  from  the  grave  of  Washington  —  its 
message  to  Americans  of  to-day. 

The  Passing  of  the  Individual. 

The  age  of  organization,  of  combination,  and  of 
machinery  is  said  to  operate  against  the  develop- 
ment of  personal  traits  in  men.    Is  this  true  ? 

The  Stranger  within  our  Gates. 

Our  duty  to  the  foreign  immigrant.  His  contribu- 
tions to  America's  greatness,  and  the  curses  he 
has  brought  with  him.  The  wisdom  of  a  limited 
exclusion  act.  They  Who  Knock  at  Oar  Gates, 
Mary  Antin,  Houghton,  1914.  See  also  Scribners, 
Feb.,  1925. 

The  Specialist. 

What  conditions  have  given  rise  to  specialism  ? 
What  foundation  is  necessary  ?  What  rewards 
await  him  ?  Does  he  benefit  society  ?  Are  there 
any  dangers  to  be  avoided  ? 

The  Pleasures  of  the  Poor. 

The  public  interest  in  the  condition  of  the  poor. 
To  what  this  interest  may  lead.  Show  how 
pleasures  are  an  index  to  character.  Do  the 
pleasures  of  the  poor  elevate  or  demoralize  them  ? 
How  far  are  we  responsible  for  these  conditions  ? 

"  Remove  not  the  Ancient  Landmark." 

America's  carelessness  as  to  historic  and  literary 
landmarks.  Compare  with  Europe.  Who  shall 
take  up  this  work  ?  The  good  work  already  done 
in  this  direction ;  cite  examples. 


APPENDIX  C 


251 


56.  Realism  in  Fiction. 

Define  realism.  Should  literary  art  deal  with 
themes  merely  because  they  are  true  to  nature  ? 
A  mud  puddle  is  true  to  nature.  So  is  a  crystal 
spring.  Which  should  be  held  up  to  view  ?  Is 
this  a  fair  comparison  ? 

57.  Government  by  Injunction. 

The  tendency  of  modern  times  to  permit  the  courts 
to  set  up  or  overthrow  law.  Is  this  right? 
What  objections  ?  Why  valuable  to  society  ? 
Should  it  be  modified  or  abolished? 

58.  The  Mother  of  the  Flag. 
The  story  of  Betsy  Ross. 

59.  The  Gift  of  the  Puritan  to  America. 

See  Introduction,  in  Painter's  American  Literature. 

60.  The  Sabbath  a  National  Necessity. 

Effect  upon  physical,  mental,  and  moral  well-being 
of  our  citizens.  Compare  the  ten-day  week  tried 
during  the  French  Revolution. 

61.  The  Future  of  the  Negro. 

"  Thoughts  on  the  Negro  Problem,"  Bryce,  North 
American  Review,  Vol.  153,  p.  64;  Up  from 
Slavery,  Booker  T.  Washington;  The  Negro  in 
American  Life,  Jerome  Dowd,  Century  Co.,  1926. 
Is  the  negro  question  nearing  solution?  Shall  he 
the  negro  question  nearing  solution?  Shall  he 
continue  to  hold  the  ballot  ?  Must  the  race  ques- 
tion be  settled  by  the  white  man  alone  ?  Will 
industrial  education  help  solve  the  problem  ? 

62.  Literature  as  a  Profession. 

The  danger  of  rushing  in  unprepared. 


252 


APPENDIX  C 


63.  "MORITURI  SALUTAMUS." 

A  message  from  the  graduates  to  the  undergradu- 
ates. 

64.  Vale,  Alma  Mater! 

A  farewell  to  the  college. 

65.  Magna  ex  Parvis. 

A  study  of  the  nature  of  growth  —  particularly  with 
regard  to  the  evolution  of  the  great  from  the 
small.  Illustrate  from  nature,  and  apply  to  the 
greater  considerations  of  life. 

66.  Loyalty  to  the  Machine. 

The  old  idea  of  politics  was  subordination  of  the 
individual  to  the  will  of  the  "  machine."  Show 
how  reform  is  shattering  this  feudal  notion  and 
substituting  a  more  exalted  ideal  of  citizenship. 

67.  A  Plea  for  the  Capitalist. 

The  laborer  has  had  his  apologist;  why  not  the 
capitalist  ?  Can  we  estimate  him  justly  without 
trying  to  understand  his  view-point,  his  difficul- 
ties, his  problems,  his  weaknesses,  his  motives, 
and  his  environments  ? 

68.  Social  Environment. 

Show  how  large  a  factor  in  conduct,  aims,  and 
ideals  is  social  environment.  What  would  be 
the  effect  upon  general  manhood  and  woman- 
hood if  the  social  environment  could  be  im- 
proved ?  Would  that  be  sufficient  to  reform 
society?  What  part  does  man  have  in  the  for- 
mation of  his  own  environment  ? 


APPENDIX  C 


253 


69.  Literature  the  Test  of  an  Epoch. 

The  ideals  of  an  age  are  reflected  in  the  books  its 
men  and  women  love  to  read.  We  must  distin- 
guish between  books  read  with  serious  intent  and 
those  read  for  mere  diversion. 

70.  The  Machine  and  the  Man. 

Two  views  may  be  taken.  The  pessimistic,  which 
sees  in  the  perfection  of  labor-saving  devices  the 
destruction  of  the  value  of  man  as  an  individual. 
The  optimistic,  which  sees  in  the  same  fact  the 
elevation  of  mind  over  matter,  and  the  field  for 
the  exercise  of  man's  individuality. 

71.  The  Blessings  of  Discontent. 

No  progress  possible  when  men  are  supremely  sat- 
isfied with  their  condition.  Restlessness  under 
unsatisfactory  conditions  has  resulted  in  needed 
revolutions,  given  birth  to  liberty,  inspired  dis- 
coverers, nerved  inventors,  and,  in  general,  fur- 
nished the  motive  for  betterment  in  every  depart- 
ment of  life. 

72.  Commercialism. 

The  danger  that  our  commercial  prosperity  may  so 
pervade  our  national  life  as  to  make  the  dollar 
the  standard  by  which  all  things  are  to  be  meas- 
ured. What  influences  may  be  relied  upon  to 
oppose  and  check  this  tendency  ? 

73.  A  Message  from  the  Acorn. 

A  lesson  of  modesty,  patience,  and  of  immense 
possibilities  wrapped  up  within  small  compass. 


254 


APPENDIX  C 


74.  The  Gain  of  Loss. 

The  loss  of  some  things  is  a  great  gain.  Consider 
how  that  sacrifice  is  ever  the  foundation  for  gain. 
Illustrate  from  the  affairs  of  life.  Apply  this 
truth  to  the  higher  interests  of  the  mind  and  of 
the  heart. 

75.  Man's  Natural  Right  to  Death. 

Modern  medical  science  seeks  to  prolong  life  even 
at  the  cost  of  the  unspeakable  misery  of  the 
patient.  Is  this  right  ?  Has  not  a  man  the  right 
to  die  when  nature  so  dictates  ?  Is  the  prolonga- 
tion of  misery  justifiable  ?  What  dangerous  doc- 
trines may  be  deduced  from  this  theory  ? 

76.  The  Gratitude  of  a  Republic. 

Instances  in  the  history  of  our  nation  where  a 
"republic  is  ungrateful."  The  opposite  view 
also  presents  many  examples. 

77.  A  Citizen  of  the  World. 

A  cultivated  man  owes  allegiance  first  of  all  to  his 
own  flag,  but  his  duty  does  not  stop  there  —  he 
should  be  a  cosmopolitan.  The  interests  of  all 
men  should  fill  his  heart.  This  spirit  has  given 
birth  to  International  Law,  treaties,  the  protec- 
tion of  weak  nations,  the  Red  Cross,  etc. 

78.  Flood  Tide. 

The  "  tide  in  the  affairs  of  men,  which,  taken  at  the 
flood,  leads  on  to  fortune,"  is  called  opportunity. 
The  day  of  flood  tide  often  passes  before  we  are 
aware.  Illustrate. 


APPENDIX  C 


255 


79.  "Every  Man  has  his  Price." 

Horace  Walpole's  cynical  remark  is  not  true  now, 
nor  was  it  true  even  of  his  own  corrupt  era.  Of 
what  sort  are  the  men  who  cannot  be  bought? 
Examples. 

80.  Problems  of  Person ality. 

What  is  Personality?  New  light  on  old  problems, 
and  what  this  means  in  self-development  and  in 
child-training.  See  Mental  Hygiene,  Daniel  W. 
La  Rue,  Macmillan,  1927. 

81.  I  Believe. 

How  thorough  must  investigation  be  before  one  may 
truly  say,  "  I  believe  "  ?  Credulity  versus  belief. 
The  lightness  with  which  men  say  these  words. 
Give  examples  how  belief  has  influenced  the 
lives  of  great  men,  and,  through  them,  the  world. 

82.  The  Eternity  of  Law. 

The  dignity  of  law  appears  when  we  view  its  eter- 
nity. A  universe  without  law  is  inconceivable. 
Even  God  was  always  a  law  unto  Himself,  and  al- 
ways will  be,  so  that  He  cannot  act  inconsistently 
with  Himself.  This  eternity  of  law  is  Truth. 
What  are  the  conclusions  from  this  doctrine  ? 

83.  Locks  and  Keys. 

There  is  a  key  for  every  lock.  No  difficulty  so 
great,  no  truth  so  obscure,  no  problem  so  in- 
volved, but  that  there  is  a  key  to  fit  the  lock. 
The  search  for  the  right  key,  the  struggle  to  ad- 
just it,  the  vigilance  to  retain  it  —  these  are  some 
of  the  problems  of  success. 


256  appendix  c 

84.  Called  to  a  Kingdom. 

The  career  of  the  scholar,  the  business  man,  or  the 
professional  man.  Outline  the  extent  of  the 
kingdom  opening  before  him.  He  is  called,  but 
to  possess  it  he  must  win  it,  as  Israel  won  the 
Promised  Land.  What  are  the  foes  ?  What  type 
of  self-conquest  is  necessary  to  win  it  ?  What 
will  he  do  with  it  ? 

85.  Athens,  Rome,  Jerusalem. 

Athens  stands  for  culture,  Rome  for  law,  Jerusa- 
lem for  religion.  Compare  these  three  centers  of 
influence.  Show  how  they  must  all  be  recog- 
nized in  order  to  secure  an  ideal  civilization. 

86.  The  Censor. 

Shall  we  have  censorship  of  press  and  theatre? 

87.  The  Imperatives  of  Destiny. 

The  theory  of  the  freedom  of  the  will  must  be 
viewed  in  the  light  of  God's  rulership.  God  seems 
to  have  marked  out  certain  men  for  great  careers. 
Illustrate  from  history.  The  force  of  the  divine 
"  Thou  shalt !  "  and  "  Thou  shalt  not !  " 

88.  Taboo. 

See  dictionary.  We  should  not  fear  to  trespass  on 
the  taboos  of  superstition  and  of  tradition  in  our 
search  for  truth.  Examples  :  Galileo,  Columbus, 
Miles  Coverdale,  et  al. 

89.  The  New  Patriotism. 

The  result  of  the  recent  appalling-  War.  The 
united  country.  The  self-sacrifice  of  countless 
citizens.    The  unifying  of  all  classes. 


APPENDIX  C 


257 


90.  The  Standards  of  the  "Old  Grads." 

The  achievements  of  the  old  graduates  call  upon 
the  young  people  of  to-day  to  set  up  these  noble 
deeds  as  standards  to  be  equaled  and  surpassed. 

91.  On  the  Firing  Line. 

The  tests  of  life's  realities  after  the  years  of  college 
preparation.    Bravery  or  cowardice  —  which  ? 

92.  On  the  Edge  of  the  Future. 

The  future  holds  an  invitation,  a  treacherous  greet- 
ing, a  sincere  welcome,  a  closed  door,  a  hostile 
front.    How  shall  we  approach  it  ? 

93.  A  Prince  of  the  Fourth  Estate. 

A  eulogy  of  Horace  Greeley.  Edmund  Burke 
called  the  representatives  of  the  "press"  the 
"fourth  estate." 

94.  Classical  Education. 

The  present  tendency  is  distinctly  utilitarian.  Cui 
bono?  is  the  universal  cry.  Men  specialize  too 
soon  —  before  laying  the  broad  foundation  of 
classical  knowledge.  The  opposite  ground  may 
also  be  taken. 

95.  The  Meaning  of  History. 

History  is  example.  Its  lessons  enable  men  of 
to-day  to  take  up  the  problems  of  life  with  more 
confidence.  What  are  some  of  the  greatest  les- 
sons which  history  teaches  us  ? 

96.  Blue  Spectacles. 

The  tendency  to  look  at  everything  through  the 
discouraging  "blue  glasses"  of  pessimism. 


258 


APPENDIX  C 


97.  Is  the  Christian  Missionary  a  Failure? 
References  supporting  Missions  may  be  had  from 

any  denominational  missionary  board.  The  con- 
trary view  will  be  found  in  some  of  the  pub- 
lications of  Haldeman-Julius,  Girard,  Kansas. 

98.  "The  Liberator  of  Journalism." 

An  appreciation  of  the  services  of  Joseph  Pulitzer 
to  the  "new"  journalism.  See  Joseph  Pulitzer, 
His  Life  and  Letters,  Don  C.  Seitz,  Simon  and 
Schuster,  1924. 

99.  Mexico  :  A  Problem  and  a  Promise. 

See  Viva  Mexico,  Charles  C.  Flandrau,  Appleton, 
1924 ;  also  Mexico,  Carlton  Beals,  Huebsch,  1923. 

100.  Preparedness:  A  Defense  or  a  Menace? 

An  impartial  statement  of  the  two  conflicting  views 
on  this  vital  question  which  so  nearly  concerns 
world-peace ;  the  leading  arguments  advanced  for 
each;  followed  by  the  reasons  that  support  the 
speaker's  own  view  of  the  problem. 

NOTE:  Those  who  wish  to  examine  the  most  recent  published 
material  bearing  on  a  given  subject  for  an  address  or  a  debate 
should  form  the  habit  of  applying  to  some  convenient  library 
official.  Besides  late  books,  the  periodical  room  should  not  be 
overlooked,  and  especially  the  cumulative  indexes  to  the  leading 
periodicals. 


APPENDIX  D 


ONE  HUNDRED  ADDITIONAL  SUBJECTS  FOR 
ORATIONS 

1.  The  Influence  of  Naval  Battles  upon  History. 

2.  The  Decline  of  the  Drama. 

3.  Eulogy  of  Peter  Cooper. 

4.  The  Power  of  the  Press. 

5.  Militarism  Europe's  Burden. 

6.  Invective  against  Napoleon. 

7.  The  Great  Lord  Protector. 

8.  The  Demagogue. 

9.  John  Marshall. 

10.  Alfred  the  Great. 

11.  The  University  Settlement. 

12.  St.  Helena. 

13.  The  Decline  of  Spain. 

14.  International  Arbitration. 

15.  Compulsory  Education. 

16.  Municipal  Ownership. 

17.  The  Problem  of  Poverty. 

18.  The  Relation  of  Wealth  to  Happiness. 

19.  Compulsory  Physical  Education. 

20.  The  Heroes  of  Obscurity. 

21.  Public  Opinion. 

22.  Reforms  —  False  and  True. 


259 


APPENDIX  D 


23.  The  Tyranny  of  the  Mob. 

24.  Loyalty  to  Conscience. 

25.  The  Home  and  the  State. 

26.  The  Ballot  a  Responsibility. 

27.  The  Strike  as  a  National  Issue. 

28.  Lafayette. 

29.  An  Educational  Test  for  the  Suffrage. 

30.  The  Future  of  Latin  America. 

31.  America  a  World  Power. 

32.  Partisan  Politics. 

33.  The  Inventive  Age. 

34.  Bismarck,  the  Iron  Chancellor. 

35.  The  Plutocrat. 

36.  Education  the  Safeguard  of  Liberty. 

37.  The  Little  Red  Schoolhouse. 

38.  The  Ministry  of  Adversity. 

39.  Deep  Seas  for  Pearls. 

40.  Moses  the  Type  of  Jewish  Jurisprudence 

41.  Booker  T.  Washington. 

42.  Censorship  for  the  Press. 

43.  The  Trust  Octopus. 

44.  The  New  South  —  Forty  Years  After. 

45.  Poverty  and  Crime. 

46.  "  It  is  God's  Way." 

47.  "  A  Message  to  Garcia." 

48.  Superstition. 

49.  Private  Virtue  and  Civic  Virtue. 

50.  A  Defense  of  the  Trust. 

51.  The  Future  of  the  Anglo-Saxon. 

52.  Wealth  a  Sacred  Trust. 

53.  "  Young  Men  of  Yesterday." 


APPENDIX  D 


54.  The  Common  People. 

55.  Memories. 

56.  American  Humor. 

57.  Intercollegiate  Fellowship. 

58.  Music  and  Culture. 

59.  Moral  Courage  the  Power  of  a  Soldier. 

60.  Militarism  a  Menace  to  the  Republic. 

61.  The  Influence  of  the  Theater  upon  Morals. 

62.  The  Teacher  a  Public  Benefactor. 

63.  The  Law  of  Love. 

64.  Leadership. 

65.  The  Riddle  of  Life. 

66.  The  American  Engineer. 

67.  The  Devil. 

68.  Twentieth  Century  Knighthood. 

69.  Womanhood  in  Shakespeare. 

70.  Public  Office  a  Public  Trust. 

71.  A  Plea  for  the  Kicker. 

72.  Dante  as  a  Religious  Teacher. 

73.  Hero  Worship. 

74.  Idols  of  Clay. 

75.  Service  the  Object  of  Education. 

76.  New  National  Ideals. 

77.  "The  Strenuous  Life." 

78.  The  Pennsylvania  German. 

79.  The  Quaker  as  a  Colonist. 

80.  I  Will! 

81.  The  Politics  of  a  Business  Man. 

82.  Might  and  Right. 

83.  Science  the  Handmaid  of  Faith. 

84.  Commercial  Expansion. 


APPENDIX  D 


85.  Twentieth  Century  Christianity. 

86.  The  Clergyman  in  Politics. 

87.  Modern  Materialism. 

88.  Self-criticism. 

89.  Selfism  versus  Selfishness. 

90.  Egoism  versus  Altruism. 

91.  The  College  Graduate  in  Business. 

92.  The  Small  College. 

93.  Self-culture. 

94.  The  Death  Penalty. 

95.  Conservatism  the  Friend  of  Progress. 

96.  Labor's  Right  to  Organize. 

97.  "  Luck  is  a  Fool,  Pluck  is  a  Hero." 

98.  "  Farthest  North." 

99.  The  Ethics  of  the  Cartoon. 
100.  The  Jury  System. 


LESSONS  IN  PUBLIC  SPEAKING  26$ 

UESSONS  IN  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

The  following  course  of  exercise-lessons  in  practical 
public  address  is  laid  out  so  as  to  include  twelve  speak- 
ing assignments,  and  also  directions  for  reading  and 
study.  However,  the  course  is  so  flexible  that  teachers 
or  directors,  as  well  as  individual  pupils,  may  readily 
expand  the  course  to  even  double  its  length,  as  is  ex- 
plained in  a  Note  at  the  close  of  Lesson  XII. 

Public  speaking  to-day  is  less  oratorical  than  it  used 
to  be.  Both  the  matter  and  the  manner  of  public  address 
tend  to  be  practical — that  is,  to  come  home  to  our  daily 
lives  intimately  and  helpfully.  As  a  result,  the  first  thing 
we  look  for  in  a  speech,  whether  it  be  long  or  short,  is 
human  interest — that  which  touches  our  lives,  our  occu- 
pations, our  amusements,  our  welfare,  and  all  that  con- 
cerns our  fellow  men. 

In  all  speeches  that  you  prepare  and  deliver,  think 
first  of  what  will  interest  those  who  are  to  hear  you. 
The  chances  are  that  the  things  that  move  you  deeply 
or  interest  you  greatly  will  also  call  out  the  interest  of 
others,  but  this  is  not  necessarily  so.  Hence  you  must 
estimate  the  interests,  the  likes  and  the  dislikes,  the 
knowledge  or  the  ignorance,  of  your  audience;  for  those 
considerations  will  greatly  affect  your  choice  of  a  subject 
and  your  method  of  handling  it. 

How  to  Use  Suggestion 
Your  class  work  in  public  speaking  will  succeed  or 
fail  directly  in  proportion  to  the  earnestness  with  which 


264 


LESSONS  IN  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


you  fall  in  with  these  two  ideas: 

You  must — each  of  you,  and  at  every  session  of  the 
class — firmly  adopt  the  frame  of  mind  that  is  suggested 
to  you  or  that  you  suggest  to  yourself.  YOU  CAN  DO 
THIS  IF  YOU  WILL. 

At  one  session  your  instructor  or  leader  may  say, 
"Now  we  are  holding  a  meeting  of  the  'Varsity'  football 
team.  Each  of  you  is  a  football  player,  so  you  will  listen 
to  the  speaker  always  with  that  thought  in  mind." 

At  another  session  the  suggestion  may  be  made  that 
the  class  is  a  woman's  club,  or  a  group  of  business  men, 
or  the  office  force  of  a  large  business  concern,  or  any 
specific  body  of  men,  women,  or  both,  that  may  be 
gathered  to  hear  an  address. 

The  importance  of  your  at  once  falling  in  whole- 
heartedly with  your  leader's  suggestion  cannot  be  over- 
estimated, because  the  speaker  must  Ivave  the  feeling  that 
he  is  speaking  to  this  imagined  kind  of  audience.  And 
the  audience  must  help  him  to  believe  for  the  time  being 
that  it  is  actually  that  imagined  group  of  hearers.  An 
incredulous  smile  at  the  wrong  time  is  likely  to  upset 
an  inexperienced  student-speaker  and  spoil  the  profit  and 
enjoyment  of  the  whole  exercise.  Don't  do  a  single 
thing  that  might  hinder  him  from  doing  his  best — just 
as  you  would  not  wish  your  hearers  to  confuse  or  em- 
barrass you  when  it  comes  your  turn  to  speak.  If  you 
sincerely  try — and  every  "good  sport"  will  try — you  can 
and  will  adopt  the  suggestion  that  is  made  that  you  as 
an  individual  are  a  doctor  attending  a  convention,  a  mem- 


LESSONS  IN  PUBLIC  SPEAKING  265 

ber  of  the  State  Senate,  a  committee  man,  a  director  of 
a  large  organization,  or  any  other  type  of  person  your 
leader  may  designate. 

The  second  important  direction  grows  out  of  the  first: 
The  speaker  must,  both  in  his  preparation  and  in  his 
delivery,  believe  for  the  time  being  that  he  is  one  whose 
authority  or  privilege  it  is  to  talk  to  the  kind  of  group, 
and  on  the  occasion,  that  he  himself,  or  the  leader,  has 
declared  it  to  be.  In  a  sense,  for  the  moment  he  must 
hypnotize  himself. 

I  am  sure  that  you  all  will  at  once  see  how  vital  to 
helpful  and  interesting  work  it  is  that  you  should  help 
each  other  to  do  your  best  in  the  foregoing  ways.  Re- 
member that  sleepy  or  unfriendly  hearers  can  kill  any 
speech. 

You  will  soon  see  that  the  assignments  of  this  course 
are  altogether  of  the  kind  that  you  are  likely  to  be 
called  upon  to  deliver  as  speeches  later  on  in  life,  and 
perhaps  much  sooner  than  you  expect.  For  that  reason 
yon  must  try  to  think  of  as  many  varieties  of  speeches 
as  you  can,  under  each  assignment,  so  that  the  class 
sessions  may  be  interestingly  varied. 

Lesson  I. 

Study  assignment :  Study  Chapter  I  and  Chapter  III. 
Read  the  anecdote  on  page  227. 

Speaking  assignment :  Prepare  and  deliver  two  anec- 
dotes. If  possible,  one  of  them  should  be  humorous. 
Remember  that  in  a  speech  an  anecdote  should  make  a 


266 


LESSONS  IN  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


point.  Sometimes  a  speaker  mentions  the  point  before 
he  tells  the  story,  and  sometimes  he  makes  the  applica- 
tion afterward. 

For  example :  Cleverness  sometimes  takes  the  place  of  knowl- 
edge. Even  the  grave  and  dignified  British  Civil  Service  Com- 
missioners could  not  resist  a  smile  at  an  answer  given  at  a 
recent  examination.    The  question  was: 

"Give  for  any  one  year  the  number  of  bales  O'f  cotton  exported 
from  the  United  States." 

The  applicant  wrote:    "1491.  None." 

The  other  method  is  illustrated  by  the  following: 

"Mary,"  said  John,  "I  love  you  so  much  that  I  could  lie  down 
and  die  for  you!" 

"John,"  replied  Mary,  "what  an  up-to-date  girl  wants  is  not 
a  fellow  to  lie  down  and  die  for  her  but  one  who  will  get  up 
and  hustle  for  her."  The  twentieth  century  young  woman  is 
practical. 

Now  and  then  the  point  of  an  anecdote  is  so  obvious 
that  no  formal  application  is  needed. 

Lesson  II 

Study  assignment:  Study  pages  6-10;  also  Chapter 
VII. 

Speaking  assignment:  Prepare  and  deliver  a  speech 
introducing  a  speaker.  In  doing  so,  ask  yourself  these 
questions:  What  is  the  occasion?  How  large  an  adul- 
ence  is  present  ?  How  much  or  how  little  is  the  audience 
sure  to  know  of  the  speaker — and  of  his  subject?  Of 
what  sort  is  the  address — political,  educational,  enter- 
taining, or  of  what  other  type? 

Observe  these  hints : 

Don't  embarrass  the  speaker  by  claiming  too  much  for 


LESSONS  IN  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


267 


his  eloquence. 

Don't  discuss  the  subject  that  he  is  to  discuss.  It 
might  take  the  wind  out  of  his  sails. 

Be  warm  and  friendly  in  your  introduction,  but  don't 
gush. 

Be  sure  that  you  pronounce  his  name  accurately,  state 
his  position  or  occupation  clearly,  and  name  his  subject 
precisely. 

Three  minutes  is  the  maximum  for  such  an  introduc- 
tion, and  the  wittier,  the  friendlier  and  the  shorter  it  is, 
the  better — but  speak  for  at  least  two  minutes. 

Throughout  the  course  it  will  be  found  good  practice 
now  and  then  to  have  a  member  of  the  class  preside  and 
introduce  very  briefly  several  of  the  speakers,  and  then 
call  another  to  the  chair  to  perform  a  like  service. 

Lesson  III 

Study  assignment:    Study  Chapter  XVII. 

Speaking  assignment:  Prepare  and  deliver  a  pre- 
sentation speech.  Fully  visualize  the  occasion,  the  person 
who  is  to  receive  the  gift  publicly,  and  why  it  is  to  be 
given.  Perhaps  your  athletic  coach  is  leaving  to  go  to 
a  larger  institution;  or  your  pastor  is  about  to  take  a 
round-the-world  cruise;  or  an  office  manager  is  retiring 
after  forty  years  of  service;  or  your  college  president 
has  resigned  on  account  of  ill  health;  or  a  newsboy  has 
saved  a  comrade  from  drowning — there  are  scores  of 
situations  that  will  challenge  you  to  originality  in  pre- 
paring a  unique,  friendly  and  perhaps  touching  presenta- 


268 


LESSONS  IN  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


tion  speech.  Visualize  it  all — live  it !  It  will  be  well, 
too,  to  think  up  some  other  gift  than  a  watch !  Three 
or  four  minutes  should  be  enough  for  such  a  speech. 
And  remember  the  value  of  a  short,  apt  anecdote. 

Lesson  IV 

Study  assignment:    Study  Chapters  IV  and  V. 

Speaking  assignment:  Prepare  and  deliver  a  nom- 
inating speech.  Visualize  the  occasion  and  the  group — 
political,  religious,  college  or  school  class,  athletic  team, 
literary  or  other  society,  or  what  not — and  study  how 
you  can  "sell"  your  candidate  to  those  who  are  to  make 
the  choice.  It  is  not  enough  merely  to  mention  his  or 
her  good  qualities;  you  must  present  your  favorite  in 
such  a  light  that  your  listeners  will  be  moved  to  think  as 
you  do.    The  purpose  is  to  lead  to  action.    Ponder  this. 

Lesson  V 

Study  assignment:  Study  Chapter  XII.  (1)  Hand 
in  a  list  of  any  new  words,  with  their  meanings,  found 
in  reading  this  chapter. 

(2)  Write  a  brief  outline  of  the  ideas  found  in  the 
speech  on  pages  192-195. 

(3)  List  any  unfamiliar  words  found  in  this  speech. 
Speaking  assignment:    This  is  to  be  an  impromptu 

speech.  Read  pages  34,  35.  Most  of  us  have  more  fixed 
opinions  than  we  realize,  and  they  are  likely  to  crystallize 
when  they  are  attacked.  Let  the  leader  or  teacher  make 
some  outrageously  extreme  statement  solely  as  a  chal- 


LESSONS  IN  PUBLIC  SPEAKING  269 

lenge,  asking  the  members  of  the  class  one  by  one  to 
arise  quickly  (preferably  voluntarily)  and  give  a  two- 
or  three-minute  impromptu  denial  of  the  statement. 
When  one  subject  is  exhausted,  try  another,  until  the 
whole  class  has  spoken,  if  that  be  practicable.  Here 
are  a  few  sample  challenges.  As  will  be  seen,  they  are 
extreme  enough  to  arouse  opposition,  and  it  will  be 
found  that  we  speak  most  readily  in  denial, 

CHALLENGES 

Intercollegiate  athletics  are  thoroughly  crooked. 

A  business  man  must  be  selfish  if  he  is  to  succeed. 

National  preparedness  invites  war. 

There  is  no  such  thing  as  an  honest  politician. 

Young  people  of  today  are  not  as  virtuous  as  were 
those  of  fifty  years  ago. 

Other  challenges  should  be  invented  not  only  by  the 
teacher  but  by  the  class. 

Lesson  VI 

Study  assignment:  Study  "Argumentation,"  pages 
10-28. 

Speaking  assignment:  A  subject  for  debate  having 
been  previously  chosen,  discuss  it  pro  and  con.  The 
question  should  have  an  affirmative  statement  and  not 
a  negative  one ;  do  not  state  it  thus :  "Resolved :  That 
war  cannot  be  abolished,"  but  make  the  statement  af- 
firmative. Coose  a  leader  for  each  side,  and  assign  to 
him  at  least  two  adjunct  speakers.    Each  side  should 


27O  LESSONS  IN  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

meet  so  as  to  determine  how  their  side  of  the  subject 
should  be  divided  among  the  several  speakrs. 

In  advancing  arguments  do  not  use  rebuttal  (argu- 
ments made  in  reply  to  an  opponent's  argument)  until 
the  time  set  aside  for  rebuttal  has  come. 

Each  speaker  should  be  limited  strictly  to  the  number 
of  minutes  agreed  upon. 

After  the  assigned  speakers  have  finished,  the  rest  of 
the  class  should  be  expected  to  take  part  in  the  general 
debate,  on  either  side  as  they  may  choose.  It  is  im- 
portant that  the  subject  selected  should  be  one  that  will 
arouse  a  definite  difference  of  opinions.  Judges  may  be 
appointed  if  it  is  thought  best. 

Lesson  VII 

Study  assignment :  Study  pages  28-33,  and  Chapters 
VIII  and  IX. 

Speaking  assignment:  Prepare  and  deliver  an  in- 
vective— a  speech  that  inveighs  against  someone  or  some- 
thing, a  denunciation.  You  may  never  be  called  upon 
to  deliver  a  whole  speech  with  invective  as  a  motive ;  yet, 
you  may.  At  any  rate,  every  speaker  will  wish  to  use 
denunciation  in  at  least  a  part  of  his  address  on  certain 
occasions. 

One  thing  is  important :  Think  intently  upon  a  wrong, 
and  indignation  grows.  Even  fancied  evils — such  as 
imagined  slights  or  insults — become  real  when  we  un- 
wisely brood  over  them.  Learn  to  use  this  principle  as 
a  speaker.   If  it  is  your  duty  to  denounce  a  malefactor, 


LESSONS  IN  PUBLIC  SPEAKING  27I 

an  infamous  measure,  a  dishonest  action,  a  mean  trick, 
think  deeply  and  intently  upon  it  until  it  seems  real  and 
of  great  importance  not  only  to  you  but  to  others.  Deep 
feeling  is  the  source  of  eloquence.  This  speech  should 
be  a  warm  one.  Let  the  natural  gestures,  postures  and 
facial  expressions  of  rebuke,  scorn,  righteous  indigna- 
tion, etc.,  come  forth  without  fear.  Put  all  your  vigor 
into  this  speech.  Study  Senator  Thurston's  speech,  "A 
Plea  for  Cuba,"  pages  221-226. 

Lesson  VIII 

Study  assignment:    Study  Chapters  XIX  and  XX. 

Speaking  assignment:  Prepare  and  deliver  what  col- 
legians call  a  "pep"  speech — an  enthusiastic  talk  before 
an  interscholastic  or  intercollegiate  game,  a  speech  to 
workers  in  the  midst  of  a  collection  campaign,  a  plea 
not  to  abandon  a  certain  difficult  enterprise  but  to  carry 
it  to  success,  a  soul-stirring  appeal  to  citizens  to  be  loyal 
to  a  noble  cause,  etc. 

Analyze  the  needs  of  the  crisis,  face  the  discouraging 
facts,  show  how  by  persistency,  by  courage,  by  sacrifice, 
threatened  defeat  may  be  turned  into  victory. 

By  this  time  you  should  be  using  gestures  freely  and 
more  naturally.  Consider  them.  What  gestures,  pos- 
tures and  expressions  of  countenance  express  despair, 
determination,  grit — all  the  emotions  and  the  moods  that 
arise  out  of  emotion?  Practice  them  until  they  come 
naturally  to  you  when  you  are  speaking.  Don't  stand 
stiffly  still — move  about  the  platform;  keep  your  hands 


272 


LESSONS  IN  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


out  of  your  pockets,  mostly,  and  put  life  into  your  de- 
livery because  you  have  thought  so  intensely  about  your 
subject  that  you  feel  intensely  about  it. 

This  "pep"  speech  might  well  take  from  three  to  five 
minutes  for  delivery — and  from  three  to  five  hours  to 
prepare!   Pack  it  with  power. 

Lesson  IX 

Study  assignment:  From  time  to  time  read  the  quo- 
tations that  preface  the  several  chapters.  Study  Chap- 
ters XXI  and  XVIII. 

Speaking  assignment:  Prepare  and  deliver  a  "pro- 
motion" speech — that  is,  an  argumentative  address  de- 
livered before  a  club,  a  society,  a  lodge,  a  "frat",  a  board 
of  directors,  or  other  group,  urging  them  to  adopt  a 
certain  policy  or  measure.  A  City  Council  may  be  asked 
to  adopt  a  new  system  of  traffic  control,  of  fire  portec- 
tion,  of  charity  management;  a  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  or  K.  of  C, 
or  Y.  M.  H.  A.,  may  be  urged  to  enter  on  a  building 
campaign;  a  Chamber  of  Commerce  may  be  in  need  of 
reorganizing  for  larger  work — or  what  not.  Lay  your 
facts  clearly  before  your  hearers;  don't  be  content  to 
make  general  statements ;  much  depends  on  this  speech — 
if  you  do  not  "sell"  your  proposal,  the  plan  will  fail. 
Believe  this,  and  put  your  idea  across.  This  is  not  slang 
— it  is  a  vigorous  figure  of  speech  drawn  from  the  way 
a  pitcher  delivers  his  baseball.  Put  it  across — in  five 
minutes,   Consider  the  methods  of  a  good  salesman. 


LESSONS  IN  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


273 


Lesson  X. 

Study  assignment:  Review  pages  10-28;  study  Chap- 
ter XVI. 

Speaking  assignment:  A  debate,  as  outlined  for 
Lesson  VI.  Examine  the  outlines  given  in  Appendix  A, 
pages  171-185. 

Lesson  XI. 

Study  assignment:  Study  Chapters  XIII,  XIV  and 
XV. 

Speaking  assignment :  Prepare  and  deliver  an  "occa- 
sional" speech — an  address  suitable  to  some  special  oc- 
casion, such  as  Lincoln's  or  Washington's  birthday,  Arbor 
Day,  Memorial  Day,  July  Fourth,  Labor  Day,  Columbus 
Day,  Armistice  Day,  Thanksgiving  Day,  Christmas,  Rally 
Day,  some  anniversary,  a  dedication,  a  cornerstone  lay- 
ing, a  farewell  to  a  traveler,  the  birthday  of  some  notable 
personage,  the  last  meeting  in  an  old  building,  a  celebra- 
tion of  victory,  and  the  like.  Remember  that  fitness  is 
the  most  important  thing  for  a  speaker  to  keep  always 
in  his  thought.  Do  not  use  platitudes,  but  make  your 
preparation  produce  suitable  thoughts  clothed  in  suitable 
words  suitably  delivered.  Be  original,  be  cheerful,  be 
zestful,  but  do  not  overdo. 

Lesson  XII 

Study  assignment:  Study  Chapters  VI,  X  and  XI. 
Review  Chapter  XIV. 


274  LESSONS  IN  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

Speaking  assignment:  An  after-dinner  speech.  Read 
the  list  of  subjects  suggested  in  Appendix  C,  pages  240- 
258,  and  perhaps  those  in  Appendix  D.  One  of  them 
may  suggest  a  topic  to  you.  Review  pages  171-185  and 
outline  your  material,  after  having  made  notes  of  all 
that  you  intend  saying.  Prepare  fully,  and  calmly  de- 
termine that  this  shall  be  the  best  speech  you  have  ever 
delivered.  Commit  it  to  memory  if  you  feel  that  you 
must,  but  in  general  that  is  not  the  best  thing  to  do. 

An  excellent  model  of  a  formal  after-dinner  speech 
is  to  be  found  on  pages  226-239.   Naturally,  it  is  a  longer 
one  than  you  should  now  attempt. 
Note  to  Teachers: 

This  course  may  readily  be  extended  by  adding  orig- 
inal assignments,  having  additional  debates,  and  by  giv- 
ing extra  days  to  such  lessons  as  V,  VII,  IX,  XI  and 
XII.  Books  on  debating  are  announced  on  the  back 
flyleaves  of  this  volume. 

J.  Berg  Esenwein. 


INDEX 


Names  of  authors  and  speakers  whose  words  are  quoted,  titles  of  parts, 
and  headings  of  chapters  are  printed  in  small  capitals ;  titles  of  books 
and  of  orations  appear  in  italics. 


A  fortiori,  1 5. 

A  posteriori,  13. 

A  priori,  12. 

Absurd  illustration,  26. 

Absurdity,  Reducing  to  an,  22. 

Accentuation,  126. 

Accuracy  in  expression,  2. 

Action,  45,  130,  131  ;  dignity  of,  2  ; 
related  to  will,  131 ;  Prepara- 
tion for  Expression  by  (Chap- 
ter XVII.),  130;  rousing  to,  33. 

Actor's  Art,  Redway,  134. 

Adams,  John,  42. 

Addresses,  Extemporaneous,  34. 

Address  to  the  American  Troops, 
Washington,  212. 

Address  to  the  intellect  in  persua- 
sion, 29. 

AWs  Well  that  Ends  Well,  Shake- 
speare, 76. 
Ambiguity,  26. 

American  Idea,  The,  Webster, 
186. 

Analogy,  15,  16. 
Analysis,  9;  value  of,  169. 
Ancient  History,  Rollin,  29. 
Anniversary  oration,  42. 
Antecedents,  Grammatical,  102,  103. 


Antony,  Mark,  30,  32,  33. 
Antonyms,  87. 

Appeal,  Emotional,  28,  29,  36 ;  to 

the  will,  32. 
Appendices,  169. 
Applause,  163. 
Appreciations,  42. 
Appreciations,  Pater,  87. 
Argument,  Breaking  down  an,  12, 

21 ;  building  up  an,  12. 
Argumentation,  6 ;    compared  with 

persuasion,   28 ;     defined,    10 ; 

rules  for,  11-28. 
Argumentation,  Principles  of,  Baker, 

6,  72,  170. 
Aristotle,  36,  40. 
Arnold,  Matthew,  113,  161. 
Articulation,  122,  124. 
Artists,  51. 

Art  of  Extempore  Speaking,  The, 

Bautain,  20,  ill,  113. 
Assimilating  thought,  164. 
Attention,  177. 

Audience,  5,  46,  58,  59,  77,  149; 

Facing  the  (Chapter  XX.),  154 ; 

Helps  and  Hindrances  in  the 

(Chapter  XIX.),  149. 
Authority,  12. 


275 


276 


INDEX 


Babcock,  Maltbie  D.,  91. 
Bacon,  Francis  (Lord  Verulam), 
81. 

Baker,  George  Pierce,   6,  72, 
170. 

Baker,  Ray  Stannard,  180. 

Balanced  sentences,  101. 

Barbarisms,  100. 

Barrie,  James  Matthew,  88. 

Bautain,  M.,  20,  111,  113. 

Beatitudes,  The,  1 7. 

Beecher,  Henry  Ward,  41,  54, 

110,  151,  163. 
Beecher,  Lyman,  44. 
Before  an  Audience,  Sheppard,  113, 

116,  124,  136,  164. 
Begging  the  question,  27. 
Belief,  14. 

Biglow  Papers,  Lowell,  165. 
Birch,  Tom,  97. 

Bismarck,  Otto  Edouard  Leo- 
pold von,  34. 
Black,  Jeremiah  S.,  78. 
Bonaparte,  Napoleon,  196. 
Boswell,  James,  51. 
Breathing,  118. 
Brevity,  162. 

Briefs  for  Debate,  Brookings  and 

Ringwalt,  72. 
Brookings,  W.  du  B.,  72. 
Brougham,  Lord  Henry  Peter,  91. 
Brutus,  Marcus  Junius,  30. 
Buffon,  Georges  Louis  Leclerc 

(Comte  de),  93. 
Burden  Bearing,  184. 
Burke,  Edmund,  40,  163. 
Burns,  Robert,  141. 
Butler,  Nicholas  Murray,  55. 
Butler,  Samuel,  81. 


Buxton,  Sir  Fowell,  168. 
Byron,  Lord  (George  Noel  Gor- 
don), 55,  58,  118. 

Caesar,  Caius  Julius,  141. 
Carlyle,  Thomas,  2,  no,  164,  168. 
Carpenter,  George  R.,  178. 
Carriage,  131,  163. 
Cause  and  effect,  Tests  of  reasoning 

involving,  13. 
Cause  to  effect,   Reasoning  from, 

12. 

Cavan,  Earl  of,  48. 
Certainty,  16. 

Cervantes,  Miguel  de,  23. 
Chesterfield,    Philip  Dormer 

Stanhope  (Earl  of),  168. 
Children  of  the  Poor,  The,  Parker, 

189. 

Choate,  Rufus,  21. 
Choice,  83. 
Christ,  15,  17. 

Christian  nation,  The  United  States 
a,  182. 

Churchill,  Winston  Spencer,  162. 
Cicero,  Marcus  Tullius,  2,  141. 
Circle,  The  vicious,  27  ;  reasoning 

in  a,  27. 
Circumstantial  evidence,  13. 
Cities,  A  nation  of,  181. 
City,     The     Twentieth  Century, 

Strong,  181. 
Classification,  9. 

Clearness  in  writing,  2,  93,  102,  103, 
162. 

Climax,  82;  in  description,  7. 
Coherence,  103. 
Collectives,  Use  of,  102. 
College  orations,  43. 


INDEX 


277 


Commemorative  oration,  Webster's, 
42. 

Composition,  First  rule  of  good,  97. 
Composition- Rhetoric,     Scott  and 

Denney,  175,  176. 
Conciliation    with    the  American 

Colonies,  Burke,  40. 
Conclusion  of  discourse,  160. 
Conclusion  of  syllogism,  16,  17,  18, 

19,  20,  25,  26. 
Condensation  in  description,  7. 
Confidence,  before  speaking,  154. 
Consonants,  127. 

Conversation,  97,  117,  164;  voice  in, 
117. 

Coriolanus,  Shakespeare,  130. 
Cowper,  William,  75. 
Crisis,  The,  Churchill,  162. 
Criticism  of  self,  122,  138,  141. 
Crcesus,  29. 

Crown,  Demosthenes  on  the,  173. 
Ctesiphon,  172,  173,  174. 
Cumulative  evidence,  14. 
Cur  ran,  John  Philpot,  201. 
Cyrus,  29. 

Damocles,  The  Sword  of,  Green,  51. 
Dartmouth  College  Case,  The,  37, 

40,  79. 
Davy,  Sir  Humphry,  126. 
Debate,  Briefs  for,  Brookings  and 

Ringwalt,  72. 
Declamations,  34,  35,  170,  186-239. 
De  Corona,  Demosthenes,  173. 
Dedicatory  oration,  Lincoln's,  42, 

198. 
Deduction,  16. 

Defence  of  Rowan,  Curran,  201. 
Definition,  9,  10. 


Deliberative  oratory,  40. 
Delivery  (Part  IV.),  145. 
Delivery,  147,  148,  157. 
Demonstrative  oratory,  32,  40,  43. 
Demosthenes,  49,  50,  172,  173, 174. 
Denham,  76. 

Denney,  Joseph  Villiers,  175, 176. 
De  Oratore,  Cicero,  2. 
Depew,  Chauncey  Miller,  42. 
De  Quincey,  Thomas,  44,  92. 
Derivations,  Study  of  word,  91. 
Description,  defined,  6;  rules  for,  7. 
Deteriorative  Power  of  Conventional 

Art  over  JVations,  Ruskin,  83. 
Determination,  68. 
Diction,  IOO. 

Dictionary,  Use  of  the,  86,  100. 
Digest   of    Rhetorical  Rules 

(Chapter  XIV.),  100. 
Dignity  of  action,  2. 
Dilemma,  23;  false,  24. 
Directions  to  the  players,  Hamlet's, 

159. 

Discourse,  divisions  of  the,  108; 
Preparation  of  the  (Part  II.), 
49;  The  Forms  of  (Chapter  II.), 
6;  The  Grand  Divisions  of 
the  (Chapter  XL),  76;  the  ideal, 
84;  The  Kinds  of  Public 
(Chapter  III.),  34;  The  Theory 
of  Spoken  (Part  I.),  1. 

Discovery  of  America,  The  Norse, 
178. 

Discussion  of  words,  90. 
Discussion,  The,  76,  81. 
Divisions  of  the  discourse,  108. 
Don  Quixote,  Cervantes.  23. 
Doyle,  A.  Conan,  12. 
Drama,  The,  36. 


278 


INDEX 


Drill,  Preparation  by  (Chapter 

XVIII.),  138. 
Drummond,  Henry,  16. 
Dryden,  John,  162. 

Earle,  John,  97. 

Earnestness,  in   delivery,  159;  in 

gesture,  137,  159. 
Education,  55,  no. 
Effect  to  cause,   Reasoning  from, 

13. 

Elegy  in  a  Country  Churchyard, 
Gray,  51. 

Elementary  sounds  of  English,  124. 

Elements  of  expression,  118,  120. 

Elements  of  Rhetoric,  Carpenter,  1 78. 

Elocution,  Mcllvaine,  124. 

Eloquence  (Chapter  V.),  44,  130, 
149;  Bismarck  on,  34;  born  of 
emotion,  29 ;  De  Quincey  on, 
44;  Emerson  on,  31,  44;  Lyman 
Beecher  on,  44;  Webster  on,  44. 

Emerson,  Ralph  Waldo,  31,  44, 
54.  56,  142. 

Emotional  appeal,  28,  29,  36. 

Emotion,  Excess  of,  157;  in  the 
orator,  29,  36;  how  aroused,  31, 
133,  163;  how  suppressed,  32; 
the  spring  of  action,  29. 

Emphasis,  104,  121. 

Energy,  168;  conserving,  114. 

English  Composition,  Wendell,  78, 
81. 

English  Prose,  Earle,  97. 

English  Style  in  Public  Discourse, 

Phelps,  152. 
Enthusiasm,  134. 
Enunciation,  122,  127. 
Essay  on  Biography,  Carlyle,  1 10. 


Essay  on  Criticism,  Pope,  65,  100, 
162. 

Eulogy,  42;  of  Lafayette,  Everett, 
43;  of  Lincoln,  Newman,  217. 

Everett,  Edward,  43,  82,  216. 

Evidence,  Circumstantial,  13;  cumu- 
lative, 14. 

Excitement,  how  restrained,  4. 

Exercises,  Voice,  1 18-122;  in  pro- 
nunciation, 128. 

Exposition,  6;  defined,  9;  rules  for, 
12. 

Expression,  100;  elements  of,  118, 
120. 

Extemporaneous  addresses,  34,  35. 
Extempore  Speech,  Pittenger,  113. 

Facial  expression,  132. 

Facing  the  Audience  (Chapter 
XX.),  154. 

Facts,  Getting  at,  II. 

Fallacies,  danger  of,  23;  defined,  25. 

False  conclusion,  25. 

False  dilemma,  24. 

Figures  of  speech,  98,  105. 

Fiske,  John,  178. 

Flaubert,  Gustav,  87. 

Fluency  of  expression,  2. 

Force,  of  language,  2 ;  in  composi- 
tion, 93,  104. 

Foreign  immigration,  176. 

Foreign  words,  100. 

Forensic  oratory,  40  ;  selections,  35, 

Francis,  Sir  Philip,  14. 

Freedom  or  Slavery,  Henry,  1 92. 

Fulton,  Robert  I.,  135. 

Garrick,  David,  135. 
Generalization,  9. 


INDEX 


279 


Genung,  John  Franklin,  6,  10,  13, 

24,  37.  73- 
Gesture,  133,  134,  159,  164. 

Gettysburg    Oration,   Lincoln,  42, 
198. 

Gilchrist,  Dr.,  97. 
Gladstone,  William  Ewart,  95, 
154- 

Glories  of  the  Dawn,  Everett,  216. 
Goethe,  Johann  Wolfgang  von, 
146. 

Goodrich,  Chauncey  A.,  37. 
Gordy,  J.  P.,  29. 
Gospel,  The  Power  of  the,  184. 
Grace  in  expression,  2. 
Grady,  Henry  Woodfin,  78,  226. 
Grammatical  rules  for  sentences,  102. 
Grand   Divisions  of  the  Dis- 
course, The  (Chapter  XL),  76. 
Grattan,  Henry,  156. 
Gray,  Thomas,  3,  51. 
Green,  Anna  Katherine,  51. 
Guesses  at  Truth,  Hare,  40. 
Guildenstern,  30. 
Guillotifie,  The,  Hugo,  209. 

Hall,  Robert,  62. 

Hamlet,  Shakespeare,  30,  31,  120, 

129,  138,  159,  162. 
Handbook  of  English  Composition, 

Hart,  80,  92. 
Hare,  A.  W.  and  J.  C.,  40. 
Harmony,  93,  105. 
Harrison,  Benjamin,  199. 
Hart,  James  Morgan,  80,  92. 
Head  in  oratory,  The,  132. 
Helps  and  Hindrances  in  the 

Audience  (Chapter  XIX.),  149. 
Henry,  Patrick,  153,  192. 


Henry  V.,  Shakespeare,  44. 
Henry  VIII.,  Shakespeare,  112. 
Heroes  and  Hero  Worship,  Carlyle, 
2,  164. 

Higginson,  Thomas  Wentworth, 
165. 

Highways  of  Literature,  Pryde,  6. 
Hill,  Benjamin  H.,  78. 
Hints  from  Horace,  Byron,  58. 
History,  Ancient,  Rollin,  29. 
History  of  England,  Macaulay,  27. 
Holmes,  Oliver  Wendell,  125. 
Holmes,  Sherlock,  12. 
Holyoake,  George  Jacob,  11,94, 

137.  158. 
Homiletic  Review,  123. 
Horace,  58,  94. 
Hudibras,  Butler,  81. 
Hugo,  Victor,  209. 
Human  voice,  The,  1 16. 
Hume,  David,  135,  175. 
Humor,  153. 

Huxley,  Thomas  Henry,  80. 
Hyde,  William  De  Witt,  98. 
Hygiene  of  the  voice,  1 18. 
Hypothesis,  An,  12,  16. 

Idioms,  98,  105. 

Illustration,  8,  10,  16,  106  ;  absurd, 
26. 

Immigration,  Foreign,  176. 

Imperfect  enumeration,  24,  28. 

Importance  of  Scientific  Knowledge, 
The,  Everett,  82. 

Individuality,  5,  95,  96. 

Induction,  12,  15,  16,  18. 

Inference  as  argument,  15;  as  evi- 
dence, 14;  from  general  prin- 
ciples, 16. 


28o 


INDEX 


Intellect,  Address  to  the,  in  per- 
suasion, 29. 
Introduction,  76,  79. 
Intuition,  12. 
Invective,  42. 
Irving,  Sir  Henry,  159. 

Jefferson,  Thomas,  15,  42. 
Jerrold,  Douglas  William,  153. 
Jesus  Christ,  15,  17. 
Johnson,  Life  of,  Boswell,  51,  65. 
Johnson,  Samuel,  51,  65,  97. 
Joint  inductive-deductive  reasoning, 
21. 

Jonson,  Ben,  160. 

Joy,  Babcock,  91. 

Julius  Ccesar,  Shakespeare,  33. 

Junius,  The  Letters  of,  14. 

Kinds  of  Oratory,  The  (Chapter 
IV.),  40. 

Kinds  of  Public  Discourse,  The 

(Chapter  III.),  34- 
Kingsley,  Charles,  93. 
Klopstock,  Friedrich  Gottlieb, 

116. 

Lafayette,  Eulogy  of,  43. 
Landor,  Walter  Savage,  87,  93. 
Last  Speech,  Robespierre,  214. 
Lectures,  43. 
Legal  oratory,  40. 
Leifchild,  Doctor,  156. 
Letters  of  Junius,  The,  14. 
Lincoln,  Abraham,  42, 150,  198. 
Liverpool  Speech,  Beecher,  151. 
Localisms,  100. 
Locke,  John,  55. 
Logic,  4,  10,  11,  18,  20. 


Logical  elimination,  24. 
Longfellow  Henry  Wadsvvorth, 

118,  141. 
Long  sentences,  101. 
Loose  sentences,  101. 
Lot's  escape,  184. 
Lowell,  James  Russell,  165. 

Macaulay,  Thomas  Babington,  27, 

46,  156,  163. 
McCosh,  James,  10,  18,  23. 
McIlvaine,  J.  H.,  124. 
Major  premise,  16,  17,  18,  19,  20,  25, 

26,  27. 

Manhood  and  Money,  183. 
Manuscript,  Use  of  the,  71. 
Marshall,  John,  39. 
Massillon,  Jean  Baptiste,  55. 
Materials,  The  (Chapter  IX.),  65. 
Matthews,  William,  21. 
Maupassant,  Guy  de,  87. 
Measure  for  Measure,  Shakespeare, 
6. 

Memorizing,  Preparation  for,  113. 

Merchant  of  Venice,  The,  Shake- 
speare, 18. 

Metropolitan  Police,  Phillips,  82. 

Midsummer  NighCs  Dream,  A, 
Shakespeare,  163. 

Mill,  John  Stuart,  18. 

Milton,  John,  157,  164. 

Minor  premise,  16,  17,  18,  19,  20, 
25,  26,  27. 

Mirabeau,  Gabriel  Honore  de 
Riquetti  (Count  of),  155. 

Mitchell,  Wilmot  Brookings, 
127. 

Mixed  figures,  106. 
Moderation,  34. 


INDEX 


28l 


Modern  American   Oratory,  Ring- 
wait,  42,  76. 
Modifiers,  102. 

Moliere,  Jean  Baptiste  Poquelin, 
27. 

Moore,  John  Trotwood,  164. 

Napoleon  to  the  Army  of  Italy,  196. 
Natural   Law    in    the  Spiritual 

World,  Drummond,  16. 
Naturalized  words,  100. 
Nature  of  Public  Speech,  The 

(Chapter  I.),  3. 
Narration,  6;  defined,  8;  rules  for, 

8. 

Nervousness,  115,  154. 
New  Americanism,  The,  Watterson, 
207. 

Newman,  John  Philip,  217. 
New  South,  The,  Grady,  78,  226. 
Non  sequitur,  25. 
Norse  discovery  of  America,  178. 
Notes,  Management  of,  69;  speaking 
without,  35. 

Object  of  discourse,  The,  74. 
Observation,  12,  53,  54. 
Obsolete  words,  100. 
Occasional  oratory,  41,  42. 
Orations,  34;   defined,  36;  how  to 

study,  169;   outlines,  1 71-185; 

subjects  for,  240-262. 
Oration  over  the  Athenian  Dead, 

Pericles,  171. 
Orator,  94;  defined  by  Aristotle,  36; 

defined  by  Cicero,  2. 
Oratorical  models,  169,  186. 
Oratorical  Vocabulary,  How  to 

Acquire  an  (Chapter  XII.),  85. 


Oratory  and  Orators,  Matthews,  21. 

Oratory,  deliberative  or  political,  4; 
demonstrative  or  occasional,  32, 
41;  forensic  or  legal,  40;  sacred 
or  pulpit,  41;  The  Kinds  of 
(Chapter  IV.),  40. 

Originality  (Chapter  VI.),  51. 

Our  New  Prosperity,  Baker,  180. 

Outline,  The  working,  72,  164. 

Paradise  Lost,  Milton,  164. 
Parker,  Joseph,  98. 
Parker,  Theodore,  189. 
Parkhurst,  Charles  H.,  i  14. 
Particular  logic,  20. 
Pascal,  Blaise,  72. 
Pater,  Walter,  48,  87,  93. 
Pause,  121. 
Pericles,  151,  171. 
Periodic  sentences,  101. 
Peroration,  The,  38,  76,  81,  160. 
Personal  element  in  oratory,  The,  36, 

72,  in,  165. 
Personality  and  style,  93,  94,  96. 
Personality,  Influence  of  the  will  in, 

4,  5- 

Persuasion,  6;  defined,  28;  not  all 

of  oratory,  36;  Rufus  Choate's 

ability  in,  21. 
Petitio  principii,  27. 
Phelps,  Austin,  152. 
Phillips,  Wendell,  78,  82,  95. 
Physical  condition  of  the  orator,  1 14. 
Physical  earnestness,  159. 
Physiological  Science,  Relation  of,  to 

Other  Branches  of  Knowledge, 

Huxley,  80. 
Pitch  of  voice,  119. 
Pittenger,  William,  i  13. 


282 


INDEX 


Pitt,  William,  46,  149,  204. 
Plato,  141. 

Plea  for  Cuba,  A,  Thurston,  221. 
Pita  for  Patriotism,  A,  Harrison, 
199. 

Plutarch,  49,  50. 

Political  oratory,  40. 

Pope,  Alexander,  65,  97,  100,  162. 

Popular  oratory,  43. 

Possessive,  Use  of  the,  102. 

Practical  Elocution,    Fulton  and 

Trueblood,  135. 
Practice,  138. 

Precision  in  the  use  of  words,  88, 

93.  «<»■ 

Prefixes,  Force  of,  91. 

Premise,  Major  and  minor,  16,  17, 
18,  19,  20. 

Preparation,  48,  49,  149,  164;  by 
Drill  (Chapter  XVIII.),  138;  FOR 
Expression  by  Action  (Chapter 
XVII.),  130;  for  Expression  by 
Voice  (Chapter  XVI.),  116; 
Mental  (Chapter  XV.),  112; 
neglected,  34;  of  the  Discourse 
(Part  II.),  49;  of  the  Speaker 
(Part  III.),  109. 

Preyer,  Thierry  William,  54. 

Principles  of  Argumentation,  Baker, 
6. 

Probability,  16. 

Progress  of  Poesy,  The,  Gray,  3. 
Pronunciation,  122. 
Propriety  in  words,  93,  100. 
Prose  and  conversation,  97. 
Prosperity,  National,  176,  177,  180. 
Prudence,  Of,  Denham,  76. 
Pryde,  David,  6. 
Psychology,  Gordy,  29. 


Public  Discourse,  Style  in  (Chap- 
ter XIII.),  93. 

Public  Speaking  and  Debate,  Holy- 
oake,  11,  94,  137,  158. 

Public  Speech,  Nature  of,  The 
(Chapter  I.),  3. 

Pulpit  oratory,  41,  43. 

Pun,  26. 

Purity  in  words,  93,  IOO. 
Pytheas,  49. 

Quality  of  voice,  118. 

Railroads  a  universal  benefit,  176. 
Reading  aloud,  98. 
Reasoning,  The  science  and  art  of, 
4- 

Rebuttal,  22. 
Recitations,  35. 
Reductio  ad  absurdum,  22. 
Red  way,  134. 

Reeve,  James  Knapp,  52,  53. 
Refutation,  21. 
Rehearsal,  138. 

Relation  of  Physiological  Science  to 
Other  Branches  of  Knowledge, 
The,  Huxley,  80. 

Repetition,  98. 

Reply  to  Hayne,  Webster,  77. 

Reserve  force,  95. 

Rest  before  speaking,  114. 

Resurrection  of  Christ,  The,  23. 

Revision,  75. 

Rhetoric,  4. 

Ridicule,  26. 

Right  to  Trial  by  Jury,  The,  Black, 
78. 

Ringwalt,  Ralph  Curtis,  42,  72, 
76. 


INDEX 


283 


Robespierre,  Maximilian  Marie 

Isidore  de,  214. 
Rollin,  Charles,  29. 
Romeo  and  Juliet,  Shakespeare,  163. 
Rules,   Digest   of  Rhetorical 

(Chapter  XIV.),  100. 
Rules,  Function  of,  75,  97,  143. 
Ruskin,  John,  54,  79,  83. 

Sacred  oratory,  41. 
Sancho  Panza,  24. 
St.  Luke,  15,  24. 
St.  Matthew,  17. 

School  and  College  Speaker,  Mitchell, 

127,  128. 
Scott,  Fred  Newton,  175,  176. 
Self-criticism,  122,  138,  141,  162. 
Self-evident  truths,  18. 
Self-government,  15. 
Self-instruction,  1 16. 
Self-mastery,  5,  157. 
Sentences,  kinds  of,  101  ;  variety 

in,  101. 

Sentimental  Tommy,  Barrie,  87. 

Shakespeare,  William,  6,  18,  30, 
31,  32,  33,  44,  71,  76,  112,  120, 
129,  130,  138,  159,  162,  163. 

Sheppard,  Nathan,  113,  116,  124, 
132,  136,  152,  164. 

Shiel,  158. 

Sidney,  Sir  Philip,  55. 
Simplicity,  162. 
Slang,  100. 
Smith,  Sydney,  157. 
Sorites,  19. 

Sowing  and  Reaping,  Beecher,  41. 
Speaker,  Qualities  of  a,  2. 
Speech,  a  thought-instrument,   3  ; 
extemporaneous,  34 ;  impromptu, 


34;  The  Nature  of  Public 
(Chapter  I.),  3 ;  relation  of,  to 
emotion,  4;  relation  of,  to  will, 
4;  public,  what  is  successful,  5. 

Splendor  of  language,  2. 

Stage-fright,  115,  154. 

Statement,  The,  76,  79. 

Strong,  Josiah,  181. 

Style,  102;  in  Public  Discourse 
(Chapter  XIII.),  93. 

Subject,  The  (Chapter  VII.),  58; 
choice  of,  65,  66,  67;  relation 
of  materials  to,  65. 

Sublimity,  32. 

Subjunctive,  Use  of  the,  102. 
Substitution  of  terms,  26. 
Success,  how  determined,  168. 
Suffixes,  Force  of,  91. 
Suffrage,  60. 

Summary,  98;  in  description,  7. 

Summer  Hymnal,  Moore,  164. 

Sweetness  and  Light,  Arnold,  113. 

Sword  of  Damocles,  The,  Green,  51. 

Syllogism,  The,  16;  in  enlargement, 
18;  in  enthymeme,  17,  18;  sum- 
mary of  regulating  principles 
governing  the,  20. 

Synonyms,  26,  87,  101,  105. 

Tact,  146,  153. 
Tammany  Hall,  78. 
Temperance,  Everett,  82. 
Terence,  Publius,  34. 
Testimony,  12. 

Thackeray,  Life  of,  Trollope,  143. 
Thackeray,  William  Makepeace,  142. 
Theory  of  Spoken  Discourse,  The 

(Part  I.),  1. 
Thinking,  Consecutive,  55. 


284 


INDEX 


Thoreau,  Henry  David,  54. 

Thought,  awakened,  2;  colored  by 
emotion,  4;  distinguished  from 
emotion,  4;  speech  an  instrument 

of,  3- 
Thracians,  20. 
Thucydides,  171. 
Thurston,  John  Mellen,  221. 
Time,  120. 

Title,  The  (Chapter  VIII.),  62. 

To  a  Louse,  Burns,  141. 

Toussainl  L'Ouverture,  Phillips,  78. 
Translating,  The  value  of,  91. 
Trollope,  Anthony,  143. 
Trueblood,  Thomas  C,  135. 

Turner  and  his  Works,  Ruskin,  79. 

Two  Gentlemen  of  Verona,  Shake- 
speare, 71. 
Tytler,  Alexander  Fraser  (Lord 
Woodhouselee),  50. 

Unity  in  discourse,  84,  93,  103. 
Unjust  Steward,  The,  24. 

Variety  of  expression,  106. 
Vawder's  Understudy,  Reeve,  52. 
Vicious  circle,  The,  27. 
Vitality,  93,  105. 

Vocabulary,  defined,  85;  How  to 
Acquire  an  Oratorical  (Chap- 
ter XII.),  85,  86. 


Voice,  The  human,  116;  prepara- 
tion of,  116. 

Voltaire,  Francis  Marie  Arouet  de, 
133- 

War  with  America,  The,  Pitt,  204. 

Washington,  George,  212;  His 
Contribution  to  Nationality,  175. 

Watterson,  Henry,  207. 

Webster,  Daniel,  37, 40, 42, 44,  77, 
79,  95.  185. 

Wellesley,  Arthur  (Duke  of  Wel- 
lington), 158. 

Wendell,  Barrett,  76,  81. 

Whately,  Richard,  10. 

Whitefield,  George,  135. 

Will,  in  public  speech,  4,  117;  in 
delivery,  155;  in  rehearsal,  140; 
in  voice  management,  117;  nec- 
essary to  the  mastery  of  an  audi- 
ence, 5 ;  appeal  to  in  oratory,  32. 

Wit,  153. 

Words,  The  study  of  derivation  of 
91;  from  the  Anglo-Saxon,  91 ; 
knowledge  of,  85;  obsolete, 
100 ;  precise  use  of,  88;  too 
new,  100. 

Working  Principles  of  Rhetoric, 
Genung,  6,  10,  13,  24,  37,  73. 

Writing,  The  (Chapter  X.),  71. 

Writing,  The  first,  74. 


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